



Glass 
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Roberto L Luaces 

INGENIERO AGRONOMO 



LUGARENO 96, CaMAGUEY. 







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THE 



I^AIESSISIE^S A@@!I@<^iV^^§ 



BEINQ 

A J) I GiE S T 



OF AJUL THAT 



RELATES TO AGRICULTURE, 

AND THE 

CONDUQTIISG OF RURAL AFFAIRS 

V? ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED, 

AND ADAPTED FOR THE UNITED STATES. 



BY JOHN NICHOLSON, ESQ. 

OP HinKlMEB'cOITNTT, STATE OP KEW YORK. 

SECOND EDITldiy, CORRECTED AND ENLARGED 



PUBLISHED BY BENJAMIN WARNE|it^ 

AMD SOLD AT HIS BOOKSTORES, iV PHILADELPHIA- 
AND RICHMOND, VIRGINIA. 

Wiili-am ^cksorit Printer^ Lancavter^ (Pr • 

4820 



'.^n^v 



Eastern District of Pettmyhanid, To'^d f: % ,^ 
»!fe****^*; BE IT REMEMBERED, that on tbe 'twentf -sixth day of July, it 
the forty-fifth year of the Independence of the United States of 
Aineric^, A. D. 1820, 

>\ BENJAMIN WARIf!|SiR, 
of the said district, has deposited in this office the title of a book, 
the right whereof he elaims as proprietor, in the words following, 
St;iJt^JJiiJt;Jt/Jt(fi; to wit: ^ 

, ' , , '»■ ^ 

1^' The Farmer's Assistant ; being a idigest of all tliat relates to Agriculture, and the con- 
" ducting of Rur?il affairs ; alphabetically arranged, and adapted for the Uiiited States. 
« By John Nicholson, Esq. of Herkimer county, State of New York. Second Edition, 
« Corrected and Enlarged." \. ^^ • 




#« 



In conformity to titfe act of the Congress; of the United States, entitled * An act for 
i-the encouragement OT leai-n^ng, by securing the copies of maps, chaits, and books, to 
; tlie authors and proprietors of such copies, during- the times therein mentioned,"— And 
also to the act entitled, " An act supplementary to an act entitled " An act for the en- 
couragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and books, to the ajithors 
and proprietors of such copies, during the times therein mentioned," and extending the 
benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving, and etching liistorical and other 
prints." 

. -> D, CALDWELL, 
derk of the Eastern tiistricfbf Penmylvamt- 



RECOMMENDATION. 

John NicHoxsoN, Esq. the Author of the Book 
published under the Title of "The Farmer's Assist- 
ant," having, submitted to niy inspection a number 
of manuscript, papers, containing raate^als, which 
he* intends 4o jn*t "«« ^^''^ Additions and Gor- 
»ectr<hi»,Tn a second Edition of that Work? 1 have 
Tio hesitation itf giving it as my opini9n, from apar- 
tial^perusal of those papers, and my knowledge of 
his 'industrjs.itod co|ipetency to the task he has un^ 
derts^, that the cWitemplated publication will be 
a production of great value to the Agricultural 
Class of our Countrymen. 

SlMfON DE WITT, 

Preddent of IM Sooi^ M tU Promolim <^U^eM ■*'•'' 
m </« State of JVea- roi*. 

I concur in the abw Recommendation. »■ 
i)E WITT CLINTON, 

Qovtrwir i>f the State of J^ew York. 

■.**•- 
Mbamj, April 29,,1818 



4 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 



AIR. Seeds which are buried so d^.ep as to be seclud- 
ed from their requisite portion of air will not vegetaie; for 
this reason, weeds are coi^stantly . spnni^mg up m new 
ploughed grounds; those seeds which betore h,y too deep 
for vegetation being turned up nigher the surface* _ 

Let seeds be sown in the ^lass receiver of an airpump, 
exhausted of air, and they will not.vegetate; but adrmt the 
air and they will grow directly. ^ . . c 

The lodging, or falling, of some kinds of;*,grain/,^ncl o£ 
rrass, is owing to standing too thick to adimit a free circu- 
laiiof^ o^ air, by means of which they can only pl-eserve a 
healthy state. Plant one grain ot wheat, lor instance, m 
the richest soil, and the stalks when grown wilLnot fall ; but 
plant a i-reat number of grains in the same sod, so closely 
to-ether as to preclude a free circulation of>ir amongst 
thS stalks, and they become unable to ^sustain their qwh 

weight. ^ , ., 

Air consists of different gases, as they arc,t«Kmed; the 
oxygnie'z^^, or vital air, which is essential to the existence 
otallanimM^; xh^Jiydf^ene^^^xs, or ijiflammable air ; the 
nitrogene ^'as, or common agnrios^heric air, deprived ot its 
oxygene, by having served thfe^ purposes of respiraiion or 
combustion, and.whkh is also called azote; and the ca?^6o. 
nic acid. fori^Vly. called Jixcd mF, so often found fatal m 
the bottoms of wells and elsewhere. These aVe thp prmci- 
pal; but by the application, of a sufficient degree ot caloric 
(heat) all liquid substlhces can be changed into the gase- 



ous siate. J f. . 

The common atmosphere is principally compos.ed ot the 
oxyg?ne and nitrogene gases, being about twenlfy.one parts 
of thejormer and seventy-nin« of the latter.. ,, 

As Wo oxygene or respiruble air is essential to the exist- 
ence of ai.imals; so the hydrogene and the azote is absorb- 
ed in plants, and is essential, to their growth. I iants also, 
while exposed to the light, 'emit oxygene. Thus, by i.ie 



10 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. jf 

econotny of Nature, the veg;etable world is continually ab- 
sorbing that air which is hurtful to Min, and ib almo-st con- 
&tar,tly'reproducu)c; that which is healthful. 
See further, Food of Plants; 

APPLES. The seeds of an apple seldom produce ti%es 
which bear the same ki' d of apples, and hence the necessi- 
ty of graf'ing, when we would raise the same kind. ^ 

^jnrlicious selection of trees which bear ihe best apples 
for diff- rent uses, is a ma*tf*r worthy of particular attention. 
See Cider, Orchard &c. 

In gathering applet, fo' Winter-use, they should be 
flicked from the tree, and laid carefully in a heap, under 
cover, without being bruised. After they have siveate4^ let 
them be exposed to the air and well dried, by wiping them 
with dry cloths; then lay them away m a dry place where 
they will not freeze. The time requisite for sweating will 
be six, ten, or filteen days, jiccording to the warmth of 
the weather. 

Mr. Forsyth says, that ' the most complete method of 
saving them, so as to preserve them the greatest length of 
time, is to wrap thtm in -p^'per and pack them away in 
stone jars between layers ot^ bran ; having the mouths of ^ 
the jars covered so close as to preclude the admission of 
air, and then to keep them in a dry place where they will 
not be troz'-n.' ^■ 

The fruit should not be gathered till fully ripe, which is 
known by the- stem parting easily from the twig: It 
should aho- be gathered in dry weather and when the 
dew is cff. ? ^ ^^^ 

Mr. Deanej in his * Xe'wengland /^armer,* .speaking of his 
method of preserving Winter apples, says: 

» I gather ^hem about noon on the day of the full of the 
moon which happens in the latter* part of September, or 
begining ot October. Then spread therh in a chamber, or 
j^arret, where they lie tiO about the last of November. 
Then, at a time when the weather is dry, remove them 
into casks, or boxes, in*the cellar, oufot the way of the 
frosts; but I prefer a cool part ot the cellaf. With this 
managettient, I find I can keep them till the last of May, 
so well t1iat not one in fif y will rot. *; 

t In the Autumn of 1793, I packed apples in the shav- 
ings-of pine, so that they scarcely touched one another. 
Tney kept well till Some time in May following; though 
they were a sort which are mellow for eating in December. 
Dry sawdust might perhaps answer the end as well.-^^Some 
barrel them up, and keep them through the Winter in 
upper rooms, covering them with biankets or matS) to pre- 
vent fre,i®2ing. Dry places are best for thera.* 



ik 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. U 

Mr. Deane then gaes on to offer his reasons, why the full 
ot the moon sTiould be pretered to any other time, and con- 
cludes wi'.h an opinion, that even apples for cider* should 
be gathered at thai linie.. Certain it is, that many Farmers 
have the fullest belief, that the full of the moon is the most 
propor time fer many things to be done, in the line of their 
busmess; and it may be knowledge which is the resuK^of 
loni^ experience, and handed down from Father to Son^ 
even Irom iimes more remote than we are apt to imagine. 

It is confidently asserted by many, that apples may ba 
safely kepi m ca:>ks through VViuter, in a cold chamber, or 
garret, by being merely covered with linen cloths. 

APPLE TREE CPyr]^s Malm.) . This tree flourishes 
mosi ir» a nr.ilt a4iidy loam, saiiUy, or ricti, warm, gravely 
soil A stiff clay is not good, even though it be rich. It 
thriven better in a pour s^pdy soil- than m any other poor 
earth * . " 

Some appletrees bear alternately and some yearly. The 
cause ot the toimer is said to be owing to the young tree 
bearing too large a crop at first; for this so exhausts it as 
to render it unfi; tor Oearing the next year; m the mean 
time, u becomes sufficienily recruited for a heavy crop the 
third y*: .r» and thus it become^ confirmed in the habit of 
alternaie bearing, in whic ^ it ever alter continues. In 
order, therefore, to prevent young trees fpom gtting into 
this habu, let the young fruit 'be sinped off where it 
appetrrs too plentitul, but less and less each year, until 
such time as the tree can bear a full yearly crop, and thus 
become confirmed in the habit of a yearly bearer. Perhaps 
a tree that has^ become confirmed in the habit of alternaie 
bearing might have its habit changed, by qnce or twice 
divcsimg it of Its young fruit during the bearing year, and 
manuring it^weil during that season. 

Take a scion from a yearly^ ap'B graft it on the limb of 
an alternate bearer, and it will become alternate, and vice 
versa. But it the troe reason has been given for alternate 
bearing, it doe'si not toUow that a scion from a yearly bear- 
er, when grafted on a stock that has never borne, will be- 
come alternate. In the first case, the habit of the altepate 
bearer^ being already confirmed, regulates the scion; but 
where the habit oi ihv; scion has become - con firn^ied, and 
that of the young stock has not, it would seem that the 
habit of the scion must prevail. At the Summer solsiice, 
the bark of the body of an appletree may be taken off, and 
a new bark will presently iorm, which will^ regenerate the 
tree, and render such, as were before barren, productive. 

See luitnerj Fruit TREES, ORCHARD), NuKSEUY> and 
Crab APPLE. 



12 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 



4 



APRICOT.. The culture that is proper for a peachtree 
is also ^ood for an apricot, with this difference, that it re- 
quires a lighter and warmer soil than a peachtree. 

iSce Peaciitree. 

JSH [Fraxinus) There are three kinds of ash in this 
niry; the white, the yellow, and the black. The upland 
whitea'sh is the best timber; but is liable to a white rot 
when kept- too much in contact with the ground. Winter 
is the best lime for felling it to preserve the white part 
from worms. The blackash is the most durable wood 
for rails, Sec. ^ 

ASHES. See Manures. 

ASPARAGUS {Officinalis.) , To ma^e a bed of this ex- 
celent Spring green, open a trench tour or ifve feet wide 
and/one fooi deep, in the warmest part of your garden; the 
warmer the better. Fill the trench half lull of good barn 
dung; level it, and sciatter some good earth over it; then 
lay on your roots, eight or nine inches apart, in their natu- 
ral position ; or, if seeds be used, about half that distance 
tipart : Fill up the trench with good soil and your bed is 
made. 

If roots be planted, they may be cut the second year; but 
if seeds, tot till the third. ^ After the bed is fit for use, all 
the shoots which come up^during the first six weeks may 
be cut off; but all aifier that should run to seed to strength- 
en the plants. 

As this plant is one of the first green vegetables which 
the opening"' season presentsr, and as no substimte equally 
productive can be had till tlife season for green peas and 
beans, it becomeis a matter of economy to ha've two as- 
paragus beds; the first to be brought forward as early as 
possible; the other Lite. For this pur^se, the latter ought 
to have a northern exposure, and it ^ould be spaded in 
order' to retard its growth ; by which means the plants 
will be equally large and yet very lender. The roots 
should be kiid so deep as to admit of spading the ground 
over them. ^ The beds should be kept clear of weeds 
throughout the season. In the Fall, they should have a 
layer ot roten dung spread over them, an inch in depih^ 
which may in part be taken cff the next Spring; and, 
when the bed becomes tooi^high by the constant ad^iiion of 
dunjT, part of the earth may be pared off in the Spring, 
bet^re the plants shoot, and the bed covered again v/ith a 
thin compQbt of toCfen dung. 



^ 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. IS 



ASS. This is a valuable animal for carrying burdens, and 
for being used in small carts. Mr. .Livingston Ib^^erves, 
that for these purposes they are much used, in the country 
between Nantz and Paris; and that even loads of wo(J(^ and 
hay are there carried on their backs. 'Their use tor many 
purposes in this Country,. particularly in villages, would be 
found an article of economy ; they will subsist on the coars- 
est fare; may be kept at constant service; are subject to 
few or no diseases; and they live to' a great age. 

It is also mentioned in ' The Cdm/ileie , Grazier,' that 
Asses have been successfully used in Greatbriiain for 
ploughing light lands, four of them being e%ual to two 
Horses. -^ 



B. 

BARLEY (Horaeum.) This is a hardy grain, subject to 
few diseases, bears the drought well, and is profitable for 
cultivation. When hulled, it may be ground into flour, 
which makes a bread whiter, than wheat, and but little infe« 
rior in t^iste. Soups made of it, when hulled, are as good 
as those made of rice, and are Accounted cooling and de- 
tersive in levers. The longer this grain is kept the better- 
tasted it becomes; as the cause of its^bad taste is owing to 
lis hull. The usual allowance of seed for an acre is |wo 
bushels ; but thi^ is hardly sufiicient : In general, two and 
a half IS better. Burley has frequently been known to 
yield sixty bushels an acre. It requires a soil in good con- 
dition, and, like many other crops, turns to poor accounp 
when sowji on sudi as are poor. The best for raising it 
are the loamy, satfay-loamy, or gravelly soil ; but it will do 
very well even on a strong stiff clay, provided it be well 
mellowed with frequent and effectual ploughings and har- 
rowings; and these cap be done to the best effect in the 
Fail preceding. 

As barley is a dry husky grain, and requires considerable 
moisture to cause it to vegetate, it should be jsown when 
the ground is sufficiently moist. It should also be sown as 
soon as the ground can be well prepared in the Spring. 
This grain receives essential benefit from being soaked in 
lye, brine, or some other fertilizing liquor. An English 
Writer mentions an experiment made, some years sinccj 
which may be worth inserting. 



U FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

< The ''last Sprin?,*, says he, < being remarkably dry, I 
soaked my seed-barley in the black water taken hoin a re- 
servoir A^'bich constantly receives the d raining *ot my dung- 
heap and siables. As the light corn floated on the top I 
skimed it off, and let rhe rest stand twenty-lour hours. On 
taking it from the Water, I mixed the grain with a suffi- 
cient quantity ol: wbod-aiihes, to vmake it epread regularly,' 
and^owed three fields wilh it. *" The produce was sixty 
bushels to the licre. I sowtd sonie other fields with the 
same seed,, dry"^; but the cro|-», like those of my Neighbors, 
was very poor, iiot Wove than ivvemy bushels an acre, and 
much mixed with weeds. I also sowed some of my seed 
dry, on one ridge, in each of «^y former fields;, but the 
produce was very poor,,4n cotnparison to ths other parts of 

thefiiia.':., 

Adding some saltpetre to the li,quor, in which l^he barley 
is soaked, will probably be found of great service. 
See Sowing. ' ^ 

It t^^ injurious to harvest this grain before it is thoroughly 
ripened; and, after it is cut, it^should lie a ni^rht or two in 
the dew, in order to make the beards come off more easily 
in threshing. : 

Tfiis grciin, like many others, will degenerate so much 
in a few years as not lo'be worih cultivating, if the seed be 
not frequently changed. The Farmer ough', therefore, to 
procure newlreciruiis of'seed brought from some considera- 
ble distance. - It may be advisable, also, to change the kind 
of barley, in order to ascertain whicii is most suitable to 
the soil. These are various: There is the two rowed, the 
four rowed, and the six-rowed barley; and ihere is afso a 
spegies of barley which has no husk upon it, which is 
commonly called Spelt. (See Spelt) The'six-rowed bar- 
ley is sowed in England and Ireland, as a Winter-grain, 
and is there called bear, bere, or barley big. It shells very 
much, if suffered to stand until it is sufficiently ripe. The 
four-rowed barley has generally been cul^tiv^'^^tl in this and 
the neighboring States ; probably because, in them, it has 
generally been found the best for cultivation. 

As in some parts Farmers have attempted to cultivate 
this grain without success, ii may be well to observe, that 
perhaps the cause of this failure was owing to vheir lands 
not having been made sufficiently rich; to not having been 
ploughed and harronved sufficiently; to not having sowed on 
them a sufficiency of seed (tor, if this be not done, this 
grain will often be chpaked with weeds); to' seed, winch 
bad become degenerated^ '%y having been too long used in 
one part of the country ; or, perhaps, to the kind of barley 
not having j^een suitable to the soil. If the Farmer has 
satisfied himself as to all these particular?, and still finds 



A 



X 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 15 

\ 

himself unsuccessful in the culture of this grain, he may 
conclude that either his soil, of whatever kind if may be, or 
f the climate ia which, his fitrm is siiuated, is not siSiiable la' 
the culture of hurley «, / 

Some Farmers (ji F^airfieldi in this county (H rkinner) 
have raised goods ^crops of this grain, for six or tight years 
successively, on the same ground, without any manuring,, 
anxl with rather an increase of the crop. The soil 6n 
which this is done is a dtep dark colored loam. The crops 
are usually about forty bushels to the acre, and arc raised 
with but slight culture; the stubble-ground where the last 
crQ|p^grew being merely plougl»ed up in the Fail, and crop- 
ploughed, in th& Spring, when the next crop is harrowed 
in. In harvesting, after the crop is cut with the cradle, 
and has lain a sufficient length of time, it is risked up iiks 
hay, wi hout any binding into sheaves, and carted in. 

How long these lands Will endure this culture, without 
any manuring, and yet produce good crops, or whether 
similar results, may in general be obtained from all dther 
good barley lands, is more than we can d< termine. 

Wherever' a country is found suitable lo the culture of 
barley, and not so for raisini^ wheat or rye, there, p;rticu- 
larly, it becomes highly expedient to erect mills for nulling 
barley ; for this grain, when hulled, can be converted into 
very good bread Peas may also be hulled at such Mills, 
which renders them excelent for sou p^. Sec. 

BARN. TTVe siz" of the barn should be proportionate to 
the produce of the (arm; for in this Cootitry, where build- 
ing is not ejcpensivc, all the hay and grain ishou 14 be stored 
in a' building sufficient to cover them. Mc\ny Fa.rmers con- 
tent themselves with a small barn, perhaps not sufficient to 
hold half thei^r produce; while most of the^r hay is left in 
their "i^eadows, in stacks, to be there foddered out to the • 
cattle in the course oT the Winter. In this way the 
manure is almost totally lost, as a stack containing five 
tons of hay, fed out in this way, would not ia|nuie aa 
ei'^^ht of an acre to any essential purpose. Cowdung, in 
panicuKtr, is most bentficial when buried in a dry soil; but 
when lai^ o7i a wet soil it answers but little purpose. In - 
the mean time, it the mea'dow happens to be bare and un- 
froZ'^p, as is oiten the case, the caitle may .indeed have tfcie 
chance of [)Kking some deijd grass; ^ but at thej^xpense/ 
^destroying the roots, and of poaching the soil with their 
feet, which produces an addmoniti irjury to the meadow. 
. If the giound will admit, the barn should be about so far 
distant from the house, and in such direction from it, as to 
preclude all danger of fire being communicated froip tlie one 
to the other, by the means oi the most prevalent high windso 



16 FARMER»s ASSISTANT, 



,L 



The t'armers of the older parts of Pennsylvania build 
very large barns in general; and to obviate the conse- 
quences of the hay or grain healing, in ^ large mow, four ^ 
poles' or pieces of timber are set up in the middle, so as 
to form within them a square space pf about two feet. The > 
poles are braced by cross pieces at certain distances. 
Through the apperture thus made, the extra moisiwre in 
the hay or grain l\as a chance to escape, so as to prevent 
its being mowburnt. Their barns are usually built of stone, 
and in the walls a lar^e number of small holes are made 
for the admibsion of^ air. Their cattle are chiefly all 
housed, and their dung is under cover when throvvii^ut 
of the stables, to prevent its being injured by the rains. 
The roofs of the barns are usually painted, to preserve 
them against the weather. 

The floor of the barn should be kept tight, so that the 
grain cannot fall through in threshing, and for this purpose 
it should have a layer of thin boards under it. I^ is most 
advisable, also, to have a place set apart in the barn for the 
purpose of storing away the grain, after it is threshed. 
The bins for the graih should be made of hard plank, to 
prevent the ral,s and mice eating through them, and should 
.have lids which can be fastened down with padlocks. A row 
of narrow bins, with different apartments tor various kinds 
of grain, nitiy be placed very conveniently along the side 
of. the floor where the horsestable is placed, so as to be 
partly, unlder the manger. ^ 

. BARNYARD, ;^The practice of having a barnyard on a 
declivity is a bacfone, as in this way very mucjh manure is 
washed away, without essendally ^benefiting the adjoining 
grounds. The yard should be level, and lowest in the mid- 
dle, in order to prevent the escape of much fertilizing 
liquor, that will otherwise run off from the dung during 
heavy rains. It should be cleared in the Spring of the 
dung made during Winter; and if the Milch-cows and 
other ca^4|ie are to be kept in it at night, during Summer, * . 
much manure may be mude in it by carting in rubbish of 
various kinds, together with suitable earths, to mix^with the 
dung of the cattle and absorb their stale. 

The yard should also have a high close fence round it, 
as well tor securing the cattle as for breaking off the 
winda; apd, in order to make the most of the dung, the 
cattle should be kept constantly in the yard during the 
season of foddering, and have a well close adjoining to 
supply them with water. Tlie stiflfcr the soil of the barn- 
yard, the less manure will be lost by the stale and wash 
soaking iqto the earth j and for- this reason some have taken 
the trouble to cover the whole with a thick layer of clay. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 17 



BEAN (Vicia.) There are a great*^ variety of beans; 
^ome of which^ are best adapted for field- husbandry, and 
others for culinary purposes. For the former, the English 
or Windsor bean is the best for strong clays and other rich 
soils, and the little white bean, for those which are light and 
dry. They are each cultivated in the drill method, and 
ploughed and hoed like other hoed crops. 

The English bean is to be sowed early, as a little frost 
will not hurt it. When they have grown to the height of 
about three feet, and incline to become too tall, the tops 
shoup be broken off. After gathering the first crop, the 
statics are to be cut off close to the ground, and a growth 
of suckers will rise and affolPd another green crop late in 
the Fall. >^' 

The little white bean is to be pulled before the Fall 
frosts, and to lie on the ground to (|ry and ripen. The 
haulm of (jeans should be siaVed for Winter-food for Sheep, 
as they are very fond of it. 

For culinary purposes, the Canada bean, which is a bush- 
bean, ripens soonest, and is therefore^to, be prefered for an 
early sitpply : The pods, however, become unfit for eating^ 
when the bean has attained its size. Ot those which have 
vines, the caseknife beSn, the cranberry, and the thousand 
for one, so called, ai>e very good. The short bean, as it is 
called, is also much esteemed, on account^^of the pod being 
good to eat wlien the bean is full grown. Mr. Dean s^ys, 
the^est raLanufli*for beans which have vines is hog*s dung 
witP^ mixture of ashes. ' -t .^ 

When beans are cultivated in a climate that is not natu- 
ral to them, they degenerate; and, therefore, fresh supplies 
of seed should be obtained from that country to which they 
are best adapted. 

As the culture of the bean is* fiot likely ever to become 
a part of field-husbandry, in this Country, we omit going to 
any length on this article. Their culture here seems to be 
naturally superseded by that of Inaian corn. |^ f 

BEER. To make Sjirucebeer.'^ Boil some spruce-boughs 
with som^i^ wheat-bran till the water tastes sufficiently of the 
spruce; strain the water, and stir in at the rate of two 
quarts of molasses to a half-barrel; work it with the empty- 
ings of beer, or with yeast if you have it. After working 
sufficiently, bung up the cask, or, which is Setter, %)ttle its 
contents. 

To make Molassesbeer. Take five pounds, of 'molasses, 
half a pint of yeast, and a spoonful of powdered ginger; put 
these into a vessel, and pour on two gallons of scalding hot 
soft water; shake the whole till a fermentation is produced; 

3 „ 



18 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

then add of the same kind of water sufficient to fill up your 
half barrel. If the'cask be greater or smaller than this, the 
component parts must be in proportion. ^Let the liquojj 
ferment about twelve hours; then botue it, with a, raisin or 
two in each bottle. 

It honey instead of molasses be used, at the rate of about 
twelve pounds to the barrel, ^t will make a very fine bev- 
erage, after having been bottled a while. 

To make Beer with IIo/is. Take five quarts of wheat- 
bran and three ounces of hops, and boil them fifteen 
minutes in fifteen gallons of water; strain the liquor; add 
two quarts of molasses; cool it quickly to about thljl^m- 
perature of new millE, and put it into your half barrel, hav- 
ing the cask completely fillld. Leave the bung out for 
twenty|four hours, in order that the yeast may be worked 
off and thrown out ; and then the beer will be fit for use. 
About the fifth day,>bottle ofT what remains in the cask, or 
it will turn sour, if the weathef be warm. If the cask be 
new, apply yeast, or beer-emptyings, to bring on the fer- 
mentation ; but, if it has been in this use before, that will 
not be necessary. % 
^ Yeast, particularly the whiter part, is much fitfr to be 
used for fermenting, than the mere grounds of the beer- 
barrel ; and the same may be observed, in regard to its use 
in fermenting dough for bread. 

To recover a task of stale Smallbeer. Take some hops 
and some chalk broken to pieces; put them in a bag, and 
put them in at the bunghole, and then «%j^ up the cask 
closely. vLet th^ proportion* be two ounces -of hops Sid a 
pound of chalk^for ahalf-barrel. 

To cure a cask of rofiy Beer. Mix two handsful of bean- 
flour with one handful of salt, and stir it in. 

To feed a cask of Beer, Bake a rye-loaf well nutmeged; 
cut it in pieces, and put it in a narrow bag with some hops 
and some wheat, and put the bag into the cask at the 
bunghole. 

T^^la^ify Beer, For a half-barrel, take about six ounces 
of chalk, burn it, and put it into the cask. This will dis- 
turb the liquor and fine it in twenty-four hours. 

It is also recommended, in some cases, to disscilye some 
loaf-sugar and add to the above ingredients. ^/ 

We omit going into any description of the method of 
making strongbeer, as the necessity for it among Farmers, 
as a household beverage, seems to be greatly obviated by 
that of smallbeer, which is much less intoxicating, and by 
cider, a stronger drink, , which is readily afforded from 
apple-orchards, which are more or less natural to almost 
every part of the United States, except a little of its south- 
ern border, where the grape can be cultivated to advantage. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. ly 

It is indeed true; that /hany Farm^ts in Greatbritain 
brew thelt own strongbeer ; but there is but little of that 
country where appl#t)rchards are natural, either to the soil 
or the climate; and hence, as a substitute for. cider, this 
drink has been resorted to. It is an expensive liquor for 
the Farmer to make much ^use of, as it requires four 
bushels'of malt to make a barrel, even of common ale, and 
eight, for a barrel of beer of the strongest kind. 

BEES. Every hive must have Its Queenbee; and if she 
be t||^n away, and cannot be replaced by another, or a new 
one bought forth, in the manner here^ter to be mentioned, 
the Swarm soon quit their labors and become extinct. The 
Queenbee is the Mother of the whole ; as well of tlie suc- 
ceeding Queens, as of the working Bees, which are much 
the most numerous in every hive, and o^the Males, or 
Drones, which do not worl^ The eggs for each kind are 
laid in cells particularly intended for their reception. The 
Queen, or Mothep^. is about a fourth larj^er than the Work- 
ers, and an eighth larger than thfi|&/ones: She has a 
much larger and longer belly, and is of a darker color, than^ 
the rest. 

The only apparent use for the Males is for impregnating 
the Queen ; and yet but one out of the whole performs this 
office. On some fine warm day, early in Summer^ she 
leaves the hivjp Jbr this purpose, mounts out of sight in 
the air, is goii^^some considerable time, and, if successful 
in accomplishihg: the purpose *of her flight, returns with 
evident marks of impregnation; the genitals of the Male 
being left in her. v 

When the Males are no longer of use, for the purpose 
of impregnation, or rather in the month of August, they 
are fallen upon by the Workers, dispatched by their stings,^ 
and thrown out of the hive. 

If the Queen is not impregnated, until after the expira- 
tion of twenty days from the time when she first ^ebmes 
from her cell, she will produce no other eggs than those 
for Drones all her life; and she will' begin to lay in the 
cells intended for them in fort]f-six hours after her impreg- 
nation. ^ 

But, if impregnated before she is ttfrenty days out of her 
cell; then, in forty-six hour-s thereafter, she commences 
laying eggs successively for the young Queens, ana for the 
Workers, in the cells intended for them respectively, and 
ai.the rate of about two hundred a day, for about eleven of 
the succeeding months; when she commences ^laying eggs 
for Drones, in the cells intended for them. 

The cells for bringing forth the Workers, and the 
Drones, are the hexagonal holes of the combs. These are 



20 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

begun at the uppermost part of the hive, and extend per 
pendicularly downwards, so that the ^lls %e horizontally. 
After they have been used as the depositories of the young 
brood, thejr are cleaned out, and made the receptacles of 
the honey, and of the bee-bread; and, when emptied of 
these, in the course of the enduing Winter, are again used 
the next season for bringing forth new broods of Bees. 

The cells foi* the young brood of Qij^^ens are placed in 
the uppermost part of the hive, and hang perpendicularly. 

The young brood of Lurvae, or Worms, which fo|j^ the 
future Workers, and Drones, are fed in their cells, 1^'^he 
Workers of the hiv8^ wilh pollen or the farina of flowers, 
which they gather and bring home in yellow masses at- 
tachelf to them on each side; and of tl^is the bee-bread 
is also composed. The food of the Worms intended for 
Queens is different from this, b|ing a kind of paste or jelly, 
of a pungent taste. 

The eggs for all the three kinds of Be^s are hatched in 
three days. A WovX^r then remains fi^ days in the ver- 
micular slate; a Male, six and a half; and a Queen, five. 
jThe Worker's Worm occupies thirty-six hours in spining 
its silken envelope or coccoon ; in three days it changes to 
a Nymph ; and only on the twentieth day of its existence 
does it become a perfect winged animal. The Drones are 
still longer in attaining this last metamorphosis, which 
lakes place in twenty-four days after the eg|^ for them, are 
laid. The Queen comes tO:^perifcction in i^^ipn days, i^ 

The coccoon of the Workers, and Drones,* covers them 
entirely ; that of the Queens covers only the head, thorax, 
and the first ring of the belly, leaving the most vulnerable 
part open to the attack of its Rival, which may soonest ac- 
quire a perfect state of existence, and be let out, by the 
Workers which guard her, from her cell. But, where a 
Queen is formed from the brood of the Workers, she is 
enveloped entirely in the coccoon, it being then indispensa- 
. bly n^tessary that, while in this stale, she should be secure 
from all attacks. ' H,k' 

The rearing of a new Queen happens when the reigning 
one is lost, and no other is to be found in the cells of the 
Queens to be brought forth. As soon as this discovery is 
made, the hive becomes a scene of tumult and disorder; 
and destiruction seems to be anticipated by the Bees, by the 
precautions they take to guard against a disaster of this 
kind. Should there be no eggs or brood in the combs of 
the Workers, the Swarm must perish ; their instinctiye 
faculties then seem to be lost ; they cease to collect honey 
and prepare wax, and soon'' disappear. But, if there be 
brood in the combs, their usual labors are continued. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 21 

Having selectea|a*Worm of three days old, or less, they 
sacrific?e three of ,the contiguous cells, that the c^ll ot the 
Worm may be folmed into one adapted for a Qu^en. In 
the mean time^ the Worm is fed with^the jelly before men- 
tioned, and at the expiration of three days they proceed to 
alter the cell into an upright one* When, the Queen has 
reached maturity, the seal of the cell is broken, and she 
comes forth qualified to .fulfil every function on which the 
preservation of isb many lives depends. '^ ' 

It would therefore seem that the Workers ^re imperfect 
Females in their organization ; and this is further evident, 
from the fact that some of them laj^^eggs, which, however, 
produce no other Bees than Drones.' * ; ^ 

Honey is the food of Bees : It is a vegetable jfecfetion, 
which appears at different seasons of the year, Ewfa^particu- 
larly when flowers are in blo,w. The Bee licks it from 
these with its proboscis ; the honey is iswallowed ; and on 
returning to the hive it is disgorged, not, from the trunk 
of the Bee, l^l^afrom its mouth, intQ,the cells. Ijoto some 
of these honey' JFor daily use IfJ^f^lip' while that put into 
others is sealed up, arid reserved for times of necessity. 
Many of the Workers free themselves of their collectiotis 
before reaching the hive, by bestowing them on others; 
and for this purpose the trunks of these are seen extended, 
and they receive the honby into them as it is disgorged. 

The wa3|as afterwards formed from honey ; and when the 
^ees swaim^thiey always carry enough (if it with them to 
Construct s&ihe combs. They can also form these from 
sugar, as has been proved by experiments made for the 
; purpose. The yellow matter with which they ret^urn laden 
is composed of ;.the farina of flowers, which is the food for 
the Young of the Workers, and Drones, as before mention- 
ed ; and also of a resinous matter, called propolis, which is 
used to line the hive, ^nd stop its crevices. The propolis 
is also used to cover any offensive insect or animal that 
may get into the hive, and which they cannot re&iove after* 
killing; such as, snails. Sec. In this case, the covering 
they put over it prever^^ its becoming offensive and con- 
tagious. 

The Queen that has become a Mother is treated with 
much more consideration and respect, than before this 
event has taken place. She is, nevertheless, the Leader of 
the first Swarm that leaves the hive in the t^ason. ' She 
exhibits the first symptoms of the swarming that is about 
to ensue. She becomes greatly agitated; runs about 
among the rest, and communicates to them the same feel- 
ing as she passes along; drops her eggs at random: 
Those coming in loaded neglect to unload themselves, but 
run precipitately about, as the tumult becomes more gen- 



22 FARMER'S A^^ISTANT. 

eral. At length, the whole, partaking,ij|^he impulse, rush 
to the outlets of the hive, and the Que^ along with- them. 
This is an event that only happens in C^ar weather, eind 
during the warmest part of the day. 

On issuinvj from the hive, they do not generally appear 
to have any place of settlement in view. The agitation 
produced soon raises the degree of heat among them very 
considerably; and it may be this circumstance that at last 
induces them to le^ve their dwelling. They will, however, 
return to it, if the Quee|) be taken away. 

They often resort to a place unsuitable in point of C^fh- 
venience, and unfit for^^heir preservation.. After rising in 
the air,*itus c^n\monlj|f some tree that arrests their pro-^; 
gress; a^ the Qieen frequently alights at the extremity 
of a bretmih; where the Bees which tnay have formed in 
clusters in the vicinity come to surround her. Sometimes 
they will swarm in the grass, ne^r the hive they have for- 
saken; though there may be trees at no great^ distance. 

Sometimes all the precursors of swarmiq^Jdisorder, and 
agitation^iave been exhibited ; when a clof\fiP|>assing before 
the sun has restored tranqviility to the hive. 

When more than one Swarm leaves the hive in a sea- 
son, those following consist of the Bees which were abroad 
when the first event took place, together with the young 
ones which have come from the eggs laid by the Queen, 
before her departure. Each succeeding Swarnft is led out 
by a young Queen,''. as there are several ro^l^lls in the 
hive^ but the cell that contains the oldest of the royaf 
blood is always opened first; as Bees seem to have an idea 
of the right of succession, and a knowledge of the one on 
whom it 's|jouTd fall. Sometimes, however, two young 
Queens will be found in the hive at once. 

If the Swarm be not removed from the place where it 
settles, it soon commences its labors ; and the same may be 
fibsery|d, if it be removed to an empty hive. Cells or 
combs a^ soon constructed of wax from the honey the 
Bees ha^Wbcirried with them ; and the first eggs laid will 
be those of the operative part of the Community. 

Having gone thus far into the natural history of Bdls, 
something is now to be said of the best means of managing 
them. 

The method*practised in this Country is, to have rows 
of beehives set close together, in a building made for the 
purpose, which is called the bee-house. The apiary, spok- 
en of by British Writers, seems to be quite different from 
this ; as the hives are recommended to stand six, some say 
twelve, feet af>art ; and to be firmly ftxed in a stake set 
into the grouj^d. We have, however, never seen any par- 
ticular advantage pointed out, by having the hives so far 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 23 

apart; while the expense of the- apiary must, in this way, 
be much greatcr,^^ every hive must have its sepai^ate roof 
or covering. \Ve|shall therefore speak of the apiary, or 
beehouse, as we have it in this Country. ^ v 

It should be at a suitable distance from any place where 
cattle are kept, or where Horses are lied; from ho^sties, and 
every other 4)lace where filth is collected.^ It is well to place 
it in a remote part of the garden, and let some shrubery 
grow round it for the Bees to light on, if they are so dis- 
posed, when the^. swarm. No^trees should be near it. Let 
it stand leaping fqrward a little, facing, the south, and clear 
of shade, with the front part of the roof prbjeciing over 
considefably, to prevent rains f^^ weting. the hives. 
These should be kept cleap, diy,:|pd sufficienfcigt, jya;rra in 
Winter; but not so warm a& to tempt the Be^ abroad 
in warm Winter- days. ^ ,, J^ 

The species of Swallow called Martins wilj destroy Bees; 
of course, no harbor should be afforded tor these birds. 
Some say that the common Swallow and the Redbreast, 
will also dest^tejlhem; but this is rather doubtful* ^. 

It is advisa^pla have large Swar&^; small oips never 
thrive so well;^ and for this purposq iwo or more small ones 
should be put together. The Swarm should weigh from 
four to six pounds. To ascertain their wfeight, that of the 
empty hive shoijid. be first known, an^Snaiked on it ; and 
then the addiiion to that will^e the weight of the Bees, 
when put into it. The weight of ^ach^Jj^ readily to bs 
known by'jtw!j|teelyard. " 

♦ For joining two or more Swarms, take a full hive, at 
night, and set it bottom upwards; then set an empty one 
of the same size witb its bottom exactly on the other, and 
let there be cross pieces in the empty one for; 'the Bees to 
light on. Then strike gently on the tw;0 sides of the full 
hive to which the edges ofr the combs are fastened, and ths 
Bees will leave it and ascend into the upper. Then repeat 
the operation with another full hive, the one with the 
Bees in being set uppermost, as before, and yooiiave two 
Swarms together. Repeat it again, as before, an||^ou have 
three ; and so on, if more Swarms are to be added. Then 
set the hive with the Bees in it where one of fhe full ones 
stood, and they will go to work together. The Queens 
must, however, be first, searche4 for, and all destroyed but 
one. , _ 

Another method reconimended is to take a full hive, set 
it on a cloth with the bottom downwards, and then give it a 
smart stroke, which will cause all the Bees to fall ; search 
for the Queen and destroy her; have another full hive rea- 
dy, and put it over the Bees, and they will soon cravvi up 
into it, and become incorporated with tli^se of that hive. 



24 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

This may also be repeated, for the purpose of adding a 
third Swarm to the other two. . > ^|fe 

Lest any one should want faith, hol|wer, in these me- 

^Ihods of i'^inint^ Swarms, we will add the directions given 

by Mi\ T/iorlei/i for the purpose, which, though attended 

with some more trouble, appears to be perfectly practi- 

cable. 

He directs that the Bees should be first stupified with 
the smoke of the dried mushroom, found in the fields, which 
is commonly cdiWed Fuf-balL It is first to be compressed, 
and then dried in an oven till it will retain fire. 

The hives'^intend^d to be joined are to be placed sv^ith 
their bottoms over twp empty ones, when a piec^of pu[lf 
set on fire.ds to be plalfid under each full hive, so that the 
smoke wifl ascend into them; lind, i^hen the Bees |iave 
becomei^llupified, let the full hives be knocked gently on 
the sides, and the Bees will fall into the empty ones in a 
torpid state ; when one of the Queens is to be searched for 
and killed. 

The two Swarms are then to be mix^^together, and 
droped in among tliS'-combs of one of t^^fives, and set 
away where that hive stbod. The entranee^Jnto it is to be 
covered with a cloth, to prevent their geiing out. Let the 
hive into which they are put be first examined, to see if it 
contains a sufficient of honey for both Swarms. 

The second day after their union, remove the cloth, in 
the dusk of th^ ^.evening, alfd they will sally forth; but, on 
account of approaching nighty will soon i^jCturn. Keep 
them confined three or four days, leting th)^tti out in the 
evening, as before, and then the cloth may be removed. 

Swarms may also be divided, in order to increase the 
number; and this is to be done before the usual time of 
swarming, *^or when brood is in the hives, which is about 
the time the trees are in blossom. Three or four pieces of 
comb, having brood in them, are to be cut out, and placed, 
in rackwork, in an empty hive, in the same position as 
when taken out; then take, say, 500 Bees from another 
hive, ani^4)ut them into this, and close it up, and keep it in 
a place where the temperature is moderate. 

Violent agitation will ensue among these Bees ; then si- 
lence; then still louder noise: But, after the second day, 
they will begin to construct the Royal Cell. On the fourth 
or filth day the hive may be carried into the garden, and 
the prisoners suff'ered to escape, which they will quickly 
do;, but in about two hours they will return, and in due 
season bring forth the new Queen. This requires about 
fifteen days, and during that lime the Bees should have 
honey, sufficient' for their subsistence, given lo them every 
other day. ^ * ■ 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. ^5 

We have before observed, that Bees in swarming often 
appear^t^have no ^^g in vi^w to reijvc^e to; but at,othcr 
times the case is diferent. In such case, after leaviing the 
hive, they will rise to some Height in the air and go ojff in a 
straight direction, sometimes to the distance of two ur three 
miles, to some 'place apparently before selected for their 
future resi'dence, which, in this Country, is conHnonly 
some hollow in a tree. 

When this happens, it is usual to .attempt to prevent 
their flight, by prodlocing confusion ampjpg ^them, by loud 
rattling noises, and thus bring them down and cause them 
to sditfe. For this purpose, firing off a gup amon^ .them is 
said to be most efficacious. Throwing sand or fiajfe gravel 
among them is also recommended; the Bees, rn'isiiiking 
the sand for rain, are suddenly disconcerted. Whatever is 
done in these ways should be done quickly, and effectually, 
or it will probably be disregarded by the Bees^ 

If tliey get fully under way, for the place of their desti-;/^ 
nation, they pre hardly to bie arrested in their piogtess. 
They may be follo>\^ed, if the Pursuer can keep in s%ht of 
them; and brought back, if not lodged, in the hollow ot a 
tree, or other inaccessible place. II they light on a branch 
of a tree, for instance, after they have settled, the branch 
may be gently cut off and laid on the ground; and then the 
hive, supported on two sticks, is to be set over them, and 
the whole tovered with a sheet, when thcy^willvsoon^ ascend 
into the hive and eommence working./ '' , 

In the evemng/when ail is still vviihin, the hive is to be 
brought to its place in the b^ehouse. _Let them settle 
where they will, after swarming, they are to be got into the 
hive in this way, or as nearly so as the circumstances of the 
case will admit, and set to their place in the evening. ■' 

It is said by Mr. ^Bonner, that after they haye settled they 
may be taken up in handfuls, and put into the hive. We 
should, however, advise to previously fortifying the hitnds 
with leather gloves. ,A case is mentior^ed by Mr Thorlcy 
where the Bees lighted on the head of his servant G^, ynd^ 
remained there, without slinging her; and that, on finding 
the Queen and seizing her and some others, .antl puting 
them into the hive, the rest, on missing her, soon followed 
in crouds andtook possiession of the hive. * - - 

In dealing with Bees, care should be taken not to breathe 
on themj as nothing is more irritating to them; while, at 
the sam#1ime, they take no offence at being blown on with 
a bellows. Where they are to be scraped together, make 
use of a feather for the purpose. It is advisable to fii your 
dress to them, by puting on clothes through which they 
"annot sting; and to protect the face, and particularly the 

yes, by a priir of goggles ; though jnany neglect these pre- 
"'4 



26 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

*l. . 

cautions, without sustaining any injury. Bees are certainly 
much less inclined^ to sting, when ^gai-ming, than Usual i 
and, if gently dealt with, maj^' then iontimonly be handled 
with safety. ^ ^ ' 

If two clusters of Bees form in swarming, and remain 
separate, a ^^^^c" will be found in each ; and as no Swarm 
that leaves a hive is ever too large, one of the Queens must 
be destroye4, and then the Bees will all unitei In cases 
of this kind, it would seem that the Queen last released 
from lier cell is let out a little too soon/ and before het 
Predecessor has liad time to go off with a Swarm, and by 
this mean the younger Queen goe,s off with tljie rest. >''-l 

If a Swarm has b^e|) destitute of a Queen for as much as 
twenty-four hours, thfey will receive a hew one that is a 
Stranger ; but, if offered to them at first, she would be re- 
jected by tfiem and put t6 death. 

The hive should be proportioned to the size of the 
^warm; one therefore weighing from four to six pounds 
'^sho6ld have a hive that will contain about three pecks. In 
this Country, hives are commonly made 'of boards op of 
straw. The formeritwe believe to be as good as any, and 
must be used for the management we would recommend, 
which is as follows ; 

The hive is to have a hole in the top, say, two inches 
square, which as to be covered with a sliding shutter; and 
is to kept closed until the hive is filled. When this is the 
case, which is to be known by the Bees lyih|j. inactive iibout 
.its mouth, open the hole above, by drawftVg the shutter 
back, and set a small hive on the top, into. which the Bees 
will ascend, and fill it with the purest honey, and whit^t 
comb, without any mixture of bee bread. 

When the upper hive is full,' take it off in a cool morn- 
ing, when the Bees are inactive, and carry it into a room 
with the windows open to the morning sun, and as this en- 
livens them they will fly off to the hive left standing, to 
join their companions in filling another small hive, which 
is to' \^^ placed on the top, as befdre. When this is full 
take it away, and put another in its place, which, in due 
time, is *also to be takeii away; closing the shutter, and 
leaving the lower hive for the Winter-fbod of ^he Swarm. 

The dpper hives should be sufficiently large to contain 
abput seventeen pounds of honey, which the Bees', if the 
Swarm be as large as it should be, will usually fill about 
three times ih the season. *"^ 

In taking out t hie honey from these small hives, which 
should be done speedily, let those Bees which are found 
unable {b fly be thrown into a vessel of cold water, so con- 
trived that they can crawlout again, and they will soon 
recover their wonfed activity, and go after their companions. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT.: 27 

In this method of managing, it will be seen, th£>t there is 
no necessity for the jptocess of fire and brimstone for geting 
rid of the Bees ; a procedure equally cruel and destructive 
of the race. 

Another method of taking -the honey, without killing the 
Bees, is by driving them out of the full hive, at night, into 
an empty one, with its bottom set otil'that of the other, in, 
the manner we have before mentioned; atid then, seting the 
latter in the place where the former slobd, they will soon 
go to work again. This method is saiii'tb' be considerably 
practised in France. 

Mr. Deane recommends a method ofcmanagement, which 
should also be described; though we tbnsider it inferior lo 
that we have just recommended. , 

He directs that three hives, fourteen inches in di&eter^ 
and ten high, be set one on the other; the two lower ones 
having holes in their tops, and sliding shutters, as before 
mentioned. Each hive is also to have a place of entrance 
for the*. Bees. T^e holes of the two lower hives are to be 
open at the comnrte^ncement of the season, when the Bees 
will first fill the upper hive. , ^ 

When full, close the shutter below, and take this hive 
away, and treat it in the manner before directed, and the 
Bees will proceed to fill the next hive below. When this 
is full, take it away, as before, and close the aperture in the 
top of the lower hive, and the Bees will then proceed to fill' 
that with hone^i which is to be leti tor their Winter- food. 

Mr. DeaneiJ^js^s that this method prevents the Bees 
swarming; but in this, we believe, he is mistaken. ., 

What induces us to prefer the plan we have recoitimendr 
ed, is the purity of the honey and comb, as before stated, 
and its freeness from any mixture of beebread. The comb 
is very thin and transparent, and the honey is perfectly 
clear. ^ . 

Another sort of beehive is recommended in the Edio- 
b.i^rg Encyclopedia, as l^eing much approved in Scotland. 
^.JThis is ^ hive with a number of leaves joined together, 
like theleave^ of a, book; each leaf being a frame, or pieces* 
of lattice-work, sufficiently wide jto hold one comb, and no 
more. The hive is to be composed of a suitable number of 
these leaves, which, like the leaves of a book, may be open- 
ed at any place, in the front part, and the combs, formed in 
any of them, taken away; which vacancy will be soon filled 
again by the Bees. On opening these leaves, the Bees are 
found to be very civile ox rather fearful ; owing perhaps to 
the sudden influx of light which is thus occasioned. 

The principal advantages of the leaf- hive seem to be, 
the facility it affords for taking away a part of ita contents,!^ 
at pleasure, and for examining the condition of the Beesj 



28 FARMER'^ ASSISTANT. 

in regard to their stock of provisions, their health, and 
whether they are tree from troublesogie insects. Of these 
particulars, something shall now be said. 

Were we merely to consult Our feelings, we should ad- 
vise to feed Bees, when their siock is exhausted. If this 
be near the close of -Winter, interest alone will dictate the 
measure; but, if they are found destitute at a^n earlier pe- 
riod,, perhaps their destiny is only to be averted from mo- 
tives of C0130 passion. And is the industrious Insect, that 
toils lor us incessantly during Summer, unworthy of pity 
in the hour of distress? It should be remembered, that, 
when -even a little, Bjee perishes with famine, it ^ feels % 
pa!}g as great, as when a Giant dies.* 

But jinpther Writer, quoted by Mr. Deane, says that 
Swarms, ' which have not a good stock of honey to serve 
them through Winter, are not, fit to keep.*. 

HoHfy IS. the/ most natural food for Bees. It is to be 
convvj'^d into the, hives by. lltjtle troughs for the purpose, 
and the food is to be given daily, until the Bees can ()ro,vide 
for themselves. Let, some good sweet-wort be/mixed wiih 
the honey, and it w)il then go much farther. , Sugar, or mo- 
lasses, may also be used in place of honey. A Writer, 
quottd by Mr. iJ>fi2we, says, ^ < 

* Some prescribe toasts of bread, soped in strong ale, and 
put into the hive; whereof they will not leave one crumb 
remaining* 

This is certainly much the cheapest ff^xl. 

The quantity of provisions, the Bees riiay. have in store, 
is to be, known by the weight of the hive. The weight of 
the Swarm, and of the hive or box containing them, should 
always be known, and marked,; and , then, after a reasonable 
dejJuction lor the weight of the comb, the remainder of the 
whole weight must be honey and bee-bread. The hiite 
composed of leaves, as betore described, affords, however, 
a readier way for ascertaining the stock of provisions, by 
opening the leaves and examining every part; and this we 
think one of its principal advantages. 

Perhaps the leaf-hive, with. a hole and shutter in the top, 
for the purpose of filling the small hives, as first mention- 
ed, would . be foi»nd an improvement combining the advan- 
tages of each. - ». ■-..'-*:. 

In rega'rdvto the diseases of Bees, it may lie^firstly ob- 
served, uhat epidemics have been known to prevail among 
them, and sweep .them off almost entirely; that a case of 
this kind happened, &bout forty years since, in Syria, in the 
Archipelago, as is related by the Abbe jptllu Rocca. Such 
instances are very rare, however. The most common dis- 
ease among them is a kindiaf diahoea, which is very inju- 
rious; the commencemefttof*^ which may be observed by 



farMer^s assistant. 2^ 



the foulness of tf^^ombs. These should, have the foul 
parts pared and scraped off^ 

It is said by some, that the disease may be cured by sup- 
plying the Bees with a rrlixture of rose notary and honey, di- 
luted with water. Othei's recommend for the purpose a 
syrup of equal quantities of sugar and wine, with a little 
nutmeg grated in; and by others, a mixture of honey, su- 
gar, and wine is prescribed. These medicines are also ad- 
tised to be given, when the Bees appear dull and languid, 
owing to a disorder of thelantennse. 

But what has lately proved most destructive to Bees, in 
{hh Country#is an insect, which is the spurious tinea, while 
in Its caterpillar form. It^ is a species of moth, and is 
thus described by M. i^ecttmwr. ^ 

"These creatures are of the caterpillar kind, and have 
sixteen legs. They feed on wax', and for food enter the 
beehives; where they boldly engage the Befes, and are not 
to be prevented by them from feeding, though at the ex- 
pense of their habitations; so that it is no uncommon thing 
for a Swarm of Bees to be forced to change their place, 
leaving this contemptible victor in possession of the hive/ 

* All the Authors who have writen t>n Bees, have com- 
plained of this destructive animal. It never eats the honey, 
but feeds only on the wax ; attacking^principally those waxy 
cells where the female Bee deposits her eggiS for the future 
progeny.* 

'The B^es;w6uld readily destroy these creatures, vcre 
it 'not for the armor they are covered with. They form 
themselves a coat of armor of a double matter. The first, 
next to the body, is a kind of silk of their own spining ; and 
the outer covering is of beeswax, laid on considerably 
thick. The creature, just thrusting its head out to feed, 
goes on devouring the cells ; while the Bees are buzing 
about him, attempting, in vain, to pierce him with their 
stings. He never forsakes his covering; but lengthens 
and enlarges it as he goes; and^ gnawing down the sides of 
the cells in his march, without staying to eat them one by 
one, the destruction he occasions is scarcely to be con- 
ceived.* * 

* When its time of change approaches, it contracts its 
bcjdjr within its double covering, and there changes into the 
nymph state ; whence^ after a proper time, it comes forth 
in the form of a moth, with granulated horns, and a crook 

,ed proboscis.' 

' The Bees know their enemy in this new form, and de- 
stroy all the moths they can meet with. They^ are seldom 

*5b^:ortunate, however, as to kill the whole race as soon as 
produced ; and, if only one escape, it is able to lay a foun- 
dation of revenge for the death of its Brethren.* 



30 farmer's: ASSISTANT. 

' All the flies of the moth kind lay a yist number of eggs; 
and the young: ones produced from those of one surviving 
female, of this species, are sufficient to destroy many 
honey-combs ; nay, many hives of them. The moth pro- 
duced by this caterpillar flies but little; but is very nimble 
in avoiding danger by runing, which it. does with great 
swittne^^.' 

This insect has been extending its ravages from south to 
north, for several yeafs pa^t, and in its progress must soon 
pass the northern bounds of the United States. Probably, 
like many other insects, its existence will be only tempora- 
ry. Mr. Fan Schaick says, ' 

< In the county of Greene, where I first observed it in 
1813, thp havoc it spread throughout its course was .wide 
and annihilating/ 

« In a single instance^ one Farmer had upwards of thirty 
hi*^es destroyed that year.* 

'In 1815, I observed it in the counties of Renselaer and 
Saratoga, when it first made its appearance there, where 
its ravages were. equally destructive.* 

< On inspecting a number of hives (says he) I found its 
eggs deposited in every part of them, but most generally, 
and in vast numbers, under the rims, and in the crevices of 
the floors or stands, nearest to the hives ; as if the little in- 
sect had anticipated tlfe wants of its progeny, and determin-^ 
ed to fix it where its sustenance should be abundant. But in 
doing so it does not appear tO act solely forrthe benefit of 
its OS's pring; for, whilst the worm destroys rthe* wax, and 
detaches the honey from the cells, the fly devours the 
latter, where it can do so with Impunity.' 

He adds, ' On examining several hives, I have found 
caterpillars and chrisalides, and the remains of each in 
large clusters, enveloped in webs suspended therein, and 
apparently the cftily tenants which occupied the desolated 
hive.* . > 

< The great desideratum (as he well observes) is how to 
destroy ^the tinea, or how prevent its intrusion into the 
hives.* ' 

For destroying it, he observes, ' the most cff'ectual me-r 
thod which' I have yet observed, is to raiseythe hive about 
an inch above the floor and prop it there, when, the moment 
the Bees discover tlieir unmasked enemy, whether in the 
shape of eggs, or of caterpillars in different stages of 
formation, they attack thena^ with fury, and toil incessantly 
until they have destroyed or removed every vestige of them 
off the board/ . 

He further very judiciously recommends the construction^ 
of the floor or plank on which the hive ^ stands, and also the 
rim of the hive^ tobe » of such materials and dimensions, 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 31 

as would afford no place of concealment for the fly or its 
eggs.* For these, purposes, therefore, let the plaiik be 
planed smooth, its cracks all stoped, and then either paint- 
ed, or white-washed with lime; and then let the rim be 
pared off to an edge, so that it can ^ afford no covering 
underneath, betw'een the edge and ; the plank'. Let the 
edge he also painted, and its cracks stoped. ^ 

With these precautions, and with^ the further i^prove^ 
ments, suggested ^ and put in practice, by Dr. Zow, which 
we shall now mention, we are fully conyincetl that the rav- 
ages of this, and every other creeping insect, upon the hive, 
may be. effectually prevented. 

His method is to suspend the hive, by a cord fastened io 
the top, and have the plank forming the floor moveable up 
and down. During cold weather, the plank is brought up 
close to the rim, to keep the Bees sufficiently warm ; but 
on the approach of Sprang, or' when the weather has be- 
conie suitably tnoderated, the plank is let^down about four 
inches, and kept in that situation during the warm or 
growing season. At^ particular cold spells, during the flrst 
of the Spring, or latter end of the Fall, the floor, .no doubt, 
ought to be raised up, until the return of vvarmer weather; 
but it should only be kept in this position while the comfort 
of the Bees requires it. . 

Two further advantages are mentioned by D,r. L. as be- 
ing gained by this treatment. The hiye has always suffi- 
cient fresh air' within, so as to save the labor of some of 
the Bees, whi^cjh are aloted in every close hive to perform 
the business of ventilation ; and, the bottom of the hive be- 
ing entirely open, the Bees are not impeded by each other, 
ir| coming in or going out. 

Dr. L. also found one of h^s hives infested with ants, 
which were lodged between boards forming the bottom. 
Most probably theR insects make their incursions into the 
hives at night; as he says the Bees quickly routed them, 
as soon as their hidingplace was discovered. 

Some yejars since, whe|i the caterpillar v/^s making great 
ravages in Newjersey, a Writer, in a Morristown Paper, 
recommended raising the hives, and strewing fine salt un- 
^er the rims, which he had tried for two years with com- 
plete success. We have^ been informed, however, that 
others hav6 not m^t with the same success in making this 
trial. - 

Another forniidable enemy of the Bee is mfentioned by 
^ome European Writers, whi^gh is the insect called the 
,^fyhinx Mrofios. It is said to prevail ag^iijst; the workirig 
;feees, by making, a clacking kind noise, Which, for a while, 
it vyould seem, deprives them of the power of rcsistance,i 
for it is said the Queen also possesses the power of making 



:.2 FARMERV^ASSI^TA^'T. 



this noise, which disarms The Worker? for a while; and 
that on hearing a similar sound, from the insect in question, 
it produces a similar effect, and giyes the animal a chance 
Qf preying on. the honty. ; 

But, as we believe this insect has never made its appear- 
ance in this Country;'/'we will refer those of our Readers to 
the E^inburg Encyclopedia (article Bee) who are desirous 
of having a particular description of this enemy of 
Bccs> 

Wasps and hornets also prey on the contents of the 
hive ; and should therefore have their nests destroyed, 
whenever found any where near the beehcuse. , , 

Sometimes Bees turn Robers^ and those owned by one 
will be found carrying 6ff the honey, ffonn the hives belong- 
ing to another, to their own dwellings; and in that case the 
Bees of the emptied hives are said to follow. 

Whether this be a matter of conquest on the one side,^ 
orvof consent on the other, is perhaps difficult to say; but^^ 
where the Owner of the deserting Bees finds this to be the 
case, vi^hich is to be known by the sdddeh desertion and 
r€^m plying of his hives, perhaps his best Remedy is to re- 
move his remaining Swarms to another neighborhood, for 
the season, or change his stock of Bees. 

Those which are the Robers may be traced to their 
dwellings, by scattering a Utile flour oyer them, as they 
leave' the hives from which they carry Ihe honey, and ob- 
serving their course as ^hey go off. '' 

Bees thrive best, and collect most honey, Jn the neigh- 
borhood of flowers; and the nearer to thfelm the belter. 
Buckwheat, while in blossom, affords excelent food, for 
them. Broom, clover, mustard, and the flowers of the 
poppy, afford them good pastures. The fldwers of migno- 
nette are much relished by them, and give the finest honey. 
Mr. Bromwich,' 2i British Writer, relatife that he planted 
a quantity of it before two beehives, at a considerable dis- 
tance from any other Bees ; and, wiih such abundant sup- 
plies as this afforded them, few ever left the garden where 
the mignonette grew. 

In September, he took the honey, and found it to cx^ 
ceed, by above a third, what hfe obtained from any other 
two of his b,est hives, where the Bees were obliged to fly 
farther; and that the honey was equal in fragrance and color 
to what is Imported from the warmer clirhates. 

For the purpose, therefore, of having the Bees as con- 
stantly as possibte where they can have the easiest access 
to their food, it. is the pra^ciice in some countries to carry 
them from place to place, in search of IVesh, or of ih^ 
earliest, flowers J and this is done- both by land and 
water. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 33 



On the Nile, thjUd^irg sent up, in boats constructed for 
the purpose, to \VWere the flowers are earlier in bloom ; 
and return again in two or three monthsi stoping frequently 
where the feeding is be?t. Along the shorq^ot Asia Minor, 
they are carried in boats, froni one island to another, in 
search of food. In France, they are transported, both by 
land and water, for the same purpose. 

A case is mentioned by M. Reaumur^ of a M, Frotauf, 
who kept 4^ut six hundred hives, which he moved, by 
land, tw^ent5phniles or more from home, in search of the 
best feeding;* From thirty to forty -eight were carried in 
one cart, made for the purpose; the hives heing properly 
arranged in tiers, and standing on strong cloihs, fastened 
t© springs. They traveled slovily, and on the smootliest 
roads; and frequently halted where the feeding was good. 

But we shall not further enlarge this article, with rela- 
tions of what is done ih old settled Countries, where, latjj^r 
being cheaper than it is here, the Cultivator of Bees is ena- 
bled to mukj? that profitable which, perhaps., might not be 
found equali|^ipj^ this Country. _, ^^ ^ 

Bees are qfertainly very profitable, fr properly manai^ed, 
and attended to. They, however, require more attentioil 
than is usually bestowed on them here. We have endea- 
vored to give the general ouUines of their natural history, 
andlSf what is considered to be gc^'management of them, 
without entering too ncifhuti'ly into details, which are incou- 
sisterit with the intended brevity of this Work. 

Our CouRtP^Js probably not calculated to support so 
many Bees, a^ one that has less of woodland, and more 
land that is j5;ultivated. The forests yield but little' food for 
the Bee», except the honey- dew, as it is calle^d, which at 
times is found very plentifully on tt)e leaves of trees. This, % 

however, affords bu^ Indifferent honey; and probably, when * 

this dew abounds in the forest, the leaves of the plants of 
the" cultivated fields are not wholly destitute of it. 
* There can be no doubt, however, that almost every part 
of our Country, where it is cultivated, is capable of feeding 
six times the number of, Bees wiih which it at present 
abounds. ' ^ ,^0 

BEET (Beta.) There are varieties of beets ; but the 
best are the red, artd'the reder tj:|e sweeter. Sov/ th^m ear- 
ly, if the soil be not very,.rich ; 6ut they may be sown lat»^r, 
where it is strong. The soil should be well mellowtd t) a 
good depth. A soil naturally mellow is best for them. The ' 
larger they grew the fartlier they'shou-d be set apart, even 
Id the distance of tw^ye inches. The seeds generally 
come up double, but should be separated, while youn^, 
otherwise both rck»ts will be small, and sometimes twisted 



S4 FARMEiai^ ASSISTANT 



yomM e^cli Qtlitr. Those taken out m^ be transplanted; 
y^t they will niake but short roots. Brets should be kept 
clear of weedsj til! the leaves covering the ground prevent 
their further growth. 

The roots sfiould be duj^ tip before any severe frosts; 
none of the fibrous roots should be taken away; nor should 
the tops be cut close. In thk^situation they should be boiU 
ed, to prevent any loss of their juice-. In Winter, they are 
best kept in sand ; and they should not be sufFeFred to freeze, 
as this makes theni tough and unfit for use. "^ 

Sugar is made frona- this root, and for thistpurpose the 
white beet is prefered. They are washed, and boiled soft ; 
when the juice is |)ressed out, by a screw press, and then 
boiled down to a consistence prosper for graining: Itas 
then ponred out into flat pans, made for the purpose, and 
gently stired while it is cooling. In order to render it 
n^ore dry, and white, it is put into the screw -press, and 
there severely pressed; by which operation the molasses is 
forced out, leaving the remainder almost as white as lump- 
sug^r. The,, molasses may be again boiI6d\^'d[6jvn tind con- 
vened into sugar, as before, or it may be ke^tior use. 
• We mention this use of the beet here, from a belief tjiat 
cither it, or the pumpkin, may afford the cheapest sugar to 
all those who are soon to inhabit the vast praires of the 
West, which form nea^ half of pur territory; wherig the 
s^jgar-maple^alDDunds but little, and "inhere much of the soil 
is admirably calculated for the culture of this root. It is 
almost useless to say, that it will afford ^^ir-dent spirits as 
readily as it wi^l sugar. '" 

See further, Mangel Wurt^el. Probably this may be 
found best adapted for the purpose of making su^ar. 

BOG-MEADOWS. Where these are not a turf, but 
a mere loose black dirt, and ctin be well drained, having 
then a sufficient depth, they make valuable Idnds, particu- 
larly for the purpose of raising hemp. The drier this land 
can be laid the better. When this earth is cawed out 
upon upland, it is found a good manure; and upland, parti- 
cukirly gravel and sand, whlh carted into bog-meadows, is 
almost equally beneficial. Prodigious great crops of herds- 
grass have beer^ raised on them, when thus manured with 
upJand e^^i : And if this be so benfe^cial for grass, why 
not equally so with hemp? It would seem, that not only 
grass and hemp, but many other productions, such as Indian 
corn, potatoes, cabbage, carrots, beets, turnips, parsnips, 
and perhaps almost every grain but wheat, might be culti- 
vated to great advantage on well drained boglands, where 
they had been previously well manlired with upland earths. 
The Indian corp, however, must be such as has been long 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. S5 



cultivated in a in^pxe northerly climate, and, of course* 
ripens so soon as td^lscape the early frosts which pie vail in 
bog-meadows. Hops are cultivated^ to -^reat advantage in 
these lands. * ^ # 

The method of draining these lands effectually is, first 
to run a ditch through the middle, and draw off as much of 
its waters in this way as possible.^ .Where the meadow is 
very wet and miry, you commence, at the lowest part of the 
ground, where you design its outlet to begin; and thence 
carry the dl^h inio the meadow, sinking it ail the way as 
you proceed,- as low as will barely give the waters a cur- 
rent to-run off i and the deeper this ditch can be sunk the 
better. Then run a ditch^ proportionktely deep- all round 
the edge of the bog, for the purpose of cuting off all the . 
springs. Then eross ditches are to be made, in number 
and size proportionate to the extent of the bog, and of the 
size of the middle and surrounding ditches. Generally 
speaking, the deeper and iargec your 'Pitches, the. fewer 
cross-ditches you need have. 

It shouldJ^.|emembered, that boglands will settle dfewn 
very muchj^^er draining; for which due allowance ought 
to be made, m regard, to the d6pth of the ditches. Some- 
times it may be found, that there will, after draining, be too 
thin a layer of bogdirt above the clay on which it is bot- 
tom^, to be of much value ; andi^reseeing this, it ougHt 
in some cases to deter the Proprietor from going to the 
expense of draining the swamp, particularly if it be covered 
with a thrifty grov^th of timber. 

See further, Ditches. 

BORECdLE OR COLESEED (Brassica rafia.) We 
give the directions, for the culture of this plant, from the 
Gardener's Dictionary, 

. ' This plant, which is generally known by the name of 
Rape or Coleseed, is much cultivated in the Isle of Ely, 
and some other parts of Englandj for its seed; from which 
the rapeoil is drawn: And it has also been cultiyated, of 
late years, in other places, for feeding of cattle, to greats 
advantage. '^■. ^ , 

' The coleseed, v/hen cultivated for feeding of cattfb, 
should be sown about the, middle of June. i>e ground 
should be prepared for it in the same, manner as^for turnips. 
The quantity of seed for an Icre of land Js from six to 
eight pounds; and, as the price of seed is not great, it is 
better to allow eight pounds; for, if the plants are too close 
in any part they may be thined, when the ground is hoed| 
which must be performed in the same manner as is prac- 
tised for turnips, with this difference only, of leaving those 
muchvjiearer together; for. as they have fibrous roots, 



36 FARMER||ASSISTANT. 

and slender stalks, so they do^ not reguire near so much 
room. " ^ 

< These plants should have a second hoeing, about five 
or six weeks afa^r the fi^st, which, if w^ll performed in dry 
weartier, will entirely destroy the weeds, so that they will 
require no further culture. ' 

' \yhen there is notiliii immediate want of food, these 
plijnts had better be k^pt fcrt* hard weather, or Spring feed; 
when there may be a' scarcity ot other green, ^d. If th'e 
heads are cutoff, and the stalks left in -the Sound, they 
Will shoot again early in the Spring, and produce a good 
second crop in April; which may be either fed off, or per- 
mited to run to seed, as is the practice where this is cul- 
tivated for the seed. But, if the first is fed down, tfterie 
should be care taken that the cattle do nat destroy the 
stems, or pull them out of the ground. 

* As this plant is so hardy as not to be des^oyed by frost; 
so it is. of great service, in hard Winters, for feeding of 
Ewes: For, when the ground is so hard frozen, as that 
turnips cannot be taken up, these plants ma||^|i^ cuv off for 

^ a constant su^pply. This will afford late '^^'■^ after the 
turnips are run to seed; and, if it is afterwards permited 
to stand lor seed, one acre will produce as much as, at a 
moder.rte computation, . will sell for five pounds (about 
twenty two dollars) cle^Hbf charges.* ^ ' 

The same Author adds : # 

' The curled colewort, or Siberian borecote, is now more 
generally esteemed than the former; being extreme hardy, 
so It is never injured by cold; but is always sweeter in 
severe Winters than in miW seasons.* ' 
Mr. Dtane says : , 

* A Gentleman informs him that, in Boston, he made 
several trials of this plant, and found that the' Winter did 
not injure it. It is fit tor the table from December to 
April.* 

Mr. D says: 
' He made triul of three kinds of borecole, the last year, 
in the latitude of 44. It crew very well till-Wintcr; 
but not one plant itr fifty 'md any life in the following 
^piing. The sdrts \yere the green, the white, and the red. 
But it is j^bable that in some parts,of Newengland, and 



in warm '^^ations, this plam may be cultivated to advan- 
ml 



tage; though not in fields, it may in gardens. 

It is believed that this plant might be advant 
cultivated, in the middle and more souAerly States 



BOT WORMS. The manner in which these are produc 
ed is this: An insect somewhat ^resembling a Bee in its 
bead and neck, having a long crooked tail, may be seen 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT 



during the months of Autumn, almost constantly ^ying 
about Horses ; and in the 'course ol a few wepiks will fill 
their hair, particularly about the breast and legs, with great 
numbers of its nits. Whenever tlie Horse itches in any 
part, he applies his tfeeth for the purpose'^of scratching : 
In doing this he loosens some of ^hesevnits, and they are 
received into his mouth; whence 'they pass with his food 
into the stomach, and from these the Bot is producec^. Ex;. 
periments which have been communicated byrM,r^.Living^' 
«^on put this- matter out of doubt. * *^ 

To kill Bots in a Horse, pour a quart of rum down his 
thrpat. This will make theip loose their hold of the maw, 
and they will be carried off with its contents.^ Repeat the 
do^ as often as may be found ^ necessary. > A few doses of 
linseed oil, a pint each time, jwill also quickly effect a cui^e. 

. AnOth^V efFi^ctual remedy, we havie seen recommended, 
is, to take a Sjgoonful of unslacked linie, at a time, and mix .. 
it with the food of the Horse, morning and evening, for> 
three or four days, which wi'U completely expel these 
insects. 



BUCKWHEAT (Pol^gonium.) The product of this 
grain depends much on the wheaiher, while the growing 
crop is in blossofti ; for, if the days are moderately cool ait 
that time, it may be expected to fill well and be abundant; 
but it may be otherwise, should there be much warm weath- 
er at that time. Sixty and seventy bushels to the acre are 
sornetimes raised of this grain, where the growth is suffi- 
ciently thick and heavy on the ground; but olttimes the 
crop, for want of filling properly, will not yield a third of 
this amount. 

It Should be sown at such timr, as it will just ripen be- 
fore the Fall-frosts are usually to be expected. Half a 
bushel is about a proper allowance cf seed to the acre. 
The crop will grow wiya more indifferent culture than, 
'perhaps, any other. It is much assisted by gypsum, where 
that manute is suitable to the soil. Even te wet the sq^ed 
before sowin^^ and then to dry it with a sufficient sprinl^Ung 
of that nttanure, will greatly a^iist the growth of the crm). 

It is considered excelent for Bees, while the cropTs in. 
blossom. It may be cultivateid yearly on the s^me ground, 
and to considerable advantage, on light lands pJtJ no great 
value, but* which are suitable to gypsum, as a iij^n^Jrj^. It 
•would, seem that ij^. might be raised, with scmfe profit, or* 
mtjch of that great>'tract of light mellow levi^l land, which 
extends to a greater or less distance back from the Atlan- 
tic, in the southern States. . i ; 

For the article of bread, it would be a very agreeable 
substitute for' Indian corn, which is the grain priHcipally 



38 FARMER'4. ASSISTANT. 

W 
used in that counftFy for that part of aliment. Indeed, the 
principal excelence of Buckwheat is for m-iking an agreea- 
ble bread ; for the cakes made of its flour, if eaten while 
warm, are generally mitch relished; and, for the purpose 
of bread, the same weight of flour .of this grain will, per- 
haps, go farther than that of any other whatever. When 
ground, or steamboiledj &tickwhedt is aiso good for feeding, 
and fating Swine, and other aninj^ls. 

The crop, when ripe, is cut with a cradle, and let lie in 
the swath a lew days to dry. It is than ra^^ in smaM 
biinches, i^hich is to be. done in the morning, tiS prevent its 
shelling too much. When sufficiently dry, and during the 
driest part of the day, it is drawn, either to the barn, or to 
the centre of the field, which, in some places, is the most 
usual practice,, and threshed $Tat immediately. It is very 
easily threshed with the-flaU, while dry. Indeed, the crop 
r^is easier raised, harvested, and threshetl, that) perhaps any 
"other. ^ 

We cannot recommend the culture of this,A grain, on 
lands which are suitable for more valuable eiP0p^ ; but, on 
1ig|it smooth iands particularly, the Farmer m^y find con- 
sidirable account in keeping a field, of a few acres, for a 
yearly crop of buckwheat, as well for family-use as tor as-- 
bisting in fating l>is Swine, Stc. A bnsh^el of gypsunji to the 
acre, or perhaps less, applied yearly to the ground, would 
be found'sufiitiefit to keep it rich enoug^i for good crops. 

''.•"■■'{' 
BULL. Ste Neat cattj^e. 

BURN-BAKING. A method of manuring stifF clay 
lands. It is performed by paring off the sward, in pieces 
about eighteen inches long, ^a foot wide, and two or three 
inches thick; these are set on t^ifeir edges, leaning against 
each other, to dry, which in good weather requires about 
three weeks. They are nhen lai^ up somewhat in form 
of ovens, with their months to a common windward side^ 
having a hole in the top of each for the smoke to pass off. 
In a dry day, when the wind blows into the -mouths, tlvey 
are set on fire with straw, anti ifthey burn too briskly some 
earth' niust be thrown on to deaded the fires. At the end 
of about tly'ee days they will be completely burnt through ; 
and thenH^t^ l>urnt earth is spread over the ground and 
ploughed 'ih' with a^shoul furrow. 

See further, Weeds, for another use of Burn-baki^s. 

For culing up the swards in square^Jlar burnbaking ^^ a 
roller with sharp iron rims jound ii, at suitable distances, is 
to be used. As the roller passes over the ground the rims 
sink into it sufficiently deep. The ground is first to be cut 
one way. with this implement; ihen with another implement, 



FARMER'S A^ISTAKT. 39 

resembling a wheel plough, it is cut into-squares, by cross- 
ing the direction of the roller ; and the squares are at the 
same^time severed underneath by a broad thin slf^are for 
the purpose, and are turned over in the. mapner of turning 
over sward- ground. They are then to be set up, as before 
directed. ' * 

Mr. Youngs the late fanwus Agriculturalist, -of Great- 
britain, recommends burn baking,^ where it can be easily 
performed, a^ highly benficial to odld, StiflT, and clayey soils, 

fy ' ^^ ^ - ..-.. "' ' ■ 

^ BURNT'CLAY, This 'h a good manure foi* clay ankl 
other heavy soils. In ' The CQmpkte Grazie^i*^ it is also 
recommended for light soils. The method' of preparing it 
is«af follows: ^ 

rn\.lhe first place, dig yotir clay in spits of the si:ie of 
bricks, and let them be well dried in thesun. Take small 
billets of wood, QV faggots of brush, and pile them up in 
the form of a sugarloaf, three or four feet hitj:h ; then pile 
your spits of dried clay closely round this, leaving a hole on 
^one side to Kifidle the fire, and another in the top for the 
smoke to pass o 15'. Surround the pile again with two ni,^e 
enclosures of' the spits of clay, and then kindle the hrel 
When it has goten well on lire, stop up the holes with 
clay, arwl the innate heat will so fire the mass, that wet 
chy may be thrown on in great quantities. , Care must 
however be taken, n6tto lay it on, so fast, floi^\s,o closely, 
as to put out the fire, as in that case you must begin anew. 
By raising a stage round the 4)ile, you may thro vif on clay 
till you get it as high as you please. The pile must be 
watched day and night, till fully burnt. 

Farmers possessing clay-lands will do well to make ejc- 
periments of this manure. From ten to twenty loads of it 
is a suitable dressing for an acre. 

BUTTER. For curing butter, take Dr. AndersorCs re- 
cipe, as follows r 

' Take two parts of common salt, one of brown-sugar, 
anxl one of saltpetre; beat them together so as to blend 
them completely, and apply one ounce of this to every 
pound of butter; work it well into the mass, and close it 
up for use.* ^ 

This will cost about a cent per-pound more thah^by cur- 
ing butter in the usual way ; biil its peculiar exjgjp^nce is, 
that butter thus cui^d will keep sweet for twd or three 
years; and its taste is much superior to that which is cured 
in the common way. It must not, however, be used sooner 
tharv a month after it has been laid down, as it does not 
fully acquire its rich marrowy taste, tintil about that length 
of lime. Butter cured in this way and laid down lor Winter- 



4d FARMER^ ASSISTANT. 

use, will then be* found worth at least twenty-five per cent 
more than that which has been cure^ with salt alone. \ 

Dr. Anderson condemns the practice of keeping milk in 
leaded Vessels, and butter in stone Jars, as communicating 
to the milk, anid to the butter, a poisonous quality ej^treme^ 
]y injurious to th^ huna^n consiitutidn. 

To prevent the rancidity ot common salted butter, Mr. 
Be Witt very judici0us% ■Recommends making it into rolls, ^ 
and keeping it in a pur^ brine in a cask, with a lid and 
dasher, sornewhat siniilar tp^the common i|&*urn. The 
dasher is for the purpose of Keeping the rolls under the 
brine, which is effected by means of a cord tied at one side 
of the vessel, run over the head of the handle of tHe 
dasher, and then tied down at the opposite side, ^she 
brine does not penetratjB the butter, and therefore may be 
made strong i and, to keep it pure, it may be occasionally 
heated, and the scumaaken off, which will clarify it. 

Country Merchants, who take in butter, by attending to 
this, may preserve all their Spring and Summer butter 
sweet for the Fall- market. >|P'|^' 

jjifo make the finest butter, take the- /as? fdfl^^lh-part of the 
nffit'of each teat of the be&e Cows fa|: making butter, and 
make it by itself. The first part of the milking^ which con- 
tains much the least and the poorest of the eream, can' be 
made into inferior butter, or used for other purposes. 

-Butter made in the m6n)th't)f May, is observed to be the 
best for keeping. v , ■ , 



CABBAGE fBrascia.j There are many varieties of 
this plant, such as the conimoh white and red cabbage, 
the Dutch, the Scoth, the Savoy, the Winter-green globe, 
the brocoli, the borecole, the Battersea, Sec. The oil called 
rapeoil is made from the seeds of the borecole, or rafie, as 
it is, somfelimes called. 

In Gre^tfetain, the cultivation of cabbages is a part of 
field husbawfy, and they are used for feeding and fating 
cattle. ^ .'-i ^ 

Cabbages require a soil made rich,^ut the kind is not so 

material. Mr. Young makes mention of good crops raised 

.. in red sand. Rich swamplands, well drained, are good 

for them. They will grow yearly on the same ground; 

but they exhaust the soil considerably. For field-cuhure, 

% • 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 41 

the plants are to be set in rows four feet apart and about 
two feet from each other, and ploughed and hoed like other 
hoed, crops. Transplanting is the most advisable method, 
though the seeds may be planted at first where they are 
designed to grow. Strewing soot, ashes, or lime round 
them, while young, will assist considerably in keeping off 
the insects which usually attack them. Where ihey are 
liable to become club footed, by reason of worms which eak 
into their roots, a small trifle of salt strewed round them is 
good. f. 

When cabbages are feet to Milch-cows, the decayed 
leaves must be taken off, or they will impart a bad taste 
to the milk and butter. 

•Inhere a field-crop of cabbages is to be raised, or an 
early crop for the table, the seeds for the plants should be 
sown very early in the Spring; where the crop is designed 
for Fall and Winter-use, the seeds may be sown later; but, 
as the proper time for this must still depend on the cli- 
mate, it is a matter that is best learned by experience. 

Cabbages for Winter- use should be pulled in dry weath- 
er, and be wiSll dryed before they are put into the cellnr. 
Let them be hung up in the cellar, with the heads down- 
wards. The cellar should nOt be too warm, or they will 
soon rot. They may also be kept well during Winter, by 
cuting off the heads and laying them away in a cask filled 
with snow, and keeping them in a cold place. 

But, for the Spring-supply, let a trench be made in a dry 
soil and line it with straw; set the heads closely together 
with the roots upwards; cover them with straw, and then 
with earth, piled up as steep as possible. In this manner 
they will keep till May, and may occasionally be dug out as 
they are wanted. 

CALVES. See Neat-cattle. 

CANKER. See Fruit-trees. 

CANKER WORM. See Insects. 

CARRIAGES. Some of the best British Farmers prin- 
cipally use one-horse carts, instead of wagons, on their 
farms. Mr. Young- particularly recommends themiifor this 
purpose, as being on the whole more convenient and 
cheaper. In Ireland, the wheel car is almost universally 
used on farms, and for transporting on the highways. On 
these, one Man is found sufficient to drive four cars ; the 
Horses, being under good command, follow each behind 
the other. Each Horse draws from ten to twenty hundred 
weight, according to the state of the ro^ds; for it is found 



42 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

that one animal drawing by itself, in a car or cart, can si 
easily draw eight hundred weight, ap two can draw twelve 
hundred weight, when put together in a wagon. The 
reason of this is obvious: In a cart, the Horse carries a part 
of iht load on his back; and, in drawing, his exertions are 
not buffled by the jostling and unequal exertions of another. 
Carts are, however, more easily upsfi in bad roads than 
wagons. Ano her objection against them is, that they 
press too heavily on the Horse or Ox^n, when going down 
hill, particularly when carrying a top-heavy io^; and they 
incline to tilt up behind, wheti ^oing up hill witlti such load. 
These defects are, however, easily obviated by a contriv- 
ance fixed m front of the box, for the purpose of raising 
its fore end when going down hill, and of sinking it when 
going up; so that, in either case, the centre of gravity of 
the load will not be materially altered from what it is on 
level ground. 

A can contrived and used by Lord Somerville^ in Great- 
britain, -answers this purpose in part. Another contrivance 
of that Nobleman is, a wooden bar placed on the, outside of 
C£^i wheel, just above the hubs, so that when going down 
hifl'the bars are drawn by each end against the sides of the 
wheels, so strongly as to impede t leir motion, and thus 
prevent the load pressing forward with more force than la 
convenient. A description of the menns by which these 
several operations are performed is here omited, because 
they are, perhaps, nearly as easily imagined as described. 
Any one, wishing to test their efficacy, need not be long at 
a loss for the means. 

The cart-wheels made use of by the above Nobleman and 
others are of cast- iron, being about three feet in diameter, 
with a rim about four inches broad ; The spokes are flat, 
and broadest where they join the hub and the rim, so as 
to give them most strength where most is wanted. If 
any part of the wheel happen to break, by a too violent 
concussion, it can be mended again with wrought iron, 
when it will be as strong as ever. The axletree is of 
wrought-iron. Such a cart may last an age, with good 
usage, and the cost of them is not so great as that of carts 
made of wood. Probably they would, however, be found 
too bnttle\<)n stony lands; though their strength will be 
lound ve^'^gpeat, it cast of the best metal to be had for the 
purpose. 

In the construction of the body of Jlie cart, the essential 
points are to fit it for the purposes for which it is mostly to 
be used ; to place so much of it before the axletree as 
that, when filled, about a fifih of the weight of its contents 
will rest on the Horse; and that it be so contrived as to be 
tilted up to empty its load. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 43 

The improvements above mentioned, for regulating the 
centre of gravity of the load, and for impeding the progress 
of the carriage in going down hill, may be equally well 
applied to our ox- carts. 

The wagons generally used in this Country, whether for 
one, two, or more Horses, are, perhaps, as convenient as 
those to be found elsewhere: All that is particularly insist- 
ed on is, that, according to the experience of the best 
British Farniers, the one-horst cart should be prefered to 
the wagon oa smctoth weil-cjgiliivated farms, as being cheap- 
er, and more convenient for most uses. 

Whether the wheels of carts be made of wood or of cast- 
iron, the rims should be as much as four inches broad ; 
byHhis mean they sink less into the earth, ur.d therefore 
run more safe and steadily. Their being low, and plac- 
ed pretty wide apart, also renders the cart less liable to 
upset. 

Carriages should be constantly shielded from the weath- 
er, when not in use: The Summer sun cracks and shrinks 
the wood, anij' ;wet weather tends imperceptibly to decayjt, 
and to wasteHlie parts which are of iron by rust. ^. 

For the best method of seasoning timber for carts, 
wagons, &c. see Timber. 

Wagons and carts may be made to run at least one- fifth 
easier, by having iron rollers in the boxes. This, at the 
same time, saves the trouble of taring the ^xletrees. A 
plan has been patented for wagon-boxes with rollers, which 
has the rollers held at equal distances, by having each end 
fixed in a rim or ring ; so that, as the rollers run round in 
the inside of the box, the ring turns with them, and thus 
prevents any friction by the rollers geting out of their 
places. If four or five dollars a year can be saved by the 
easy runing of a carriage, by being enabled to carry, per- 
haps, a fifth more at a load, it is well worth while to be at 
the additional expense of four or five dollars, in the first 
instance, to fit the carriage for this purpose. 

CARROT (Daucus ) There are few articles of culture 
more profitable than that of carrots. They will yield, with 
the best cultivation, from six to eight hundred bushels an 
acre. 

They require a mellow soil, into which they can easily 
penetrate deeply. They will grow very well on one which 
is moderately rich ; provided it be well and deeply mellow- 
ed. A fertile sand, a sandy loam, a dry warm loam, or a 
fertile gravelly loam, are each suitable for them, with pro- 
per manuring and cultivation. The ground ought to be 
ploughed till it is perfectly mellow, and as deep as possi- 
ble, not less than eight inches in depth, if you^^.expect the 



44 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

best crops. The land should be perfectly free of stones. 
It is best to plough but one way; not to cross- plough ; for 
this is only necessary in rough hard ground, for breaking 
clods and other obstructions to the plough; but, for the 
mere purpose of mellowing land, cross ploughing is not 
more efficacious than constantly ploughing one way. In 
this way, where you make the parting furrow, you begin 
the next time to make the back- furrow, and thus you keep 
the depth of the earth that is stired by the plough equal, 
which is essential to the equal growth *of carrots. The 
ground ought to be ploughed in this way in the Fall, and 
then but little will be requisite to prepare it* in the 
Spring. After ploughing in the Spring, it ought to be 
finely harrowed, and then it will be filed f<Jir th^ receptlbn 
of the seed. 

The sowing is performed, either in the broadcast way or 
the drill. In the former, the seed is covered with a rake 
instead of a harrow, to prevent its being covered too deep. 
The first hoeing being gone through, after they have 
arrived to a suitable size, the ground is all harrowed over ; 
and they are then to be gone over again, fqr the purpose of 
uncovering those which the harrow may hav^ covered : This 
is also a proper time for thining them where they are too 
thick; they should stand from about four to six inches apart. 
They may, however, be thined after this, when they have 
got to some size ; and then those which are puled out may 
be given to the Hogs, as they are very fond of them, and 
will readily eat both roots and tops. As soon as they have 
got so large that the tops will cover the ground, they will 
stop the further growth of weeds. For Neat-cattle and 
Hogs, they cannot be too large ; and therefore ought to be 
sown as early as the fore part of May, if the ground and 
season will admit: They will, however, do very well when 
sown as late as the latter end of May, and such are the 
best for culinary purposes. 

The garden-hoe is proper for working among them : 
It must be sharp for cuting weeds, and about four inches 
wide ; and on the other side of the handle is fixed four 
small prongs, similar to those of a dungfork, for the pur- 
pose of stiHng up the ground. 

Drilling, or sowing in rows, would be much the best, 
were it not for the tediousness of the operation. The 
seed must be droped into the rows by hand, unless some 
drill-machine can be devised by whijph to ct)mmit them to 
the earth more rapidly. This, probably, might be done, 
notwithstanding the seeds are so badly shaped for that pur- 
pose. If they were first rubed smartly together, so as to 
make them of rounder shape, then made wet with lye or 
brine, and dried with gypsum, and this repeated till the 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 45 

seeds should become encrusted ; they might then probably 
be managed successfully iu a small hand drill-machine^ 
which mav be easily contrived tor the purpose. 

The first hoeing ^/drill-rows, after ploughing l||tween 
them, requires considerable hand-labor ; after which it may 
be performed almost entirely by the horse- hoe or cultivator. 
(See HoRSE-HOE.) The rows are to be thined, so that the 
carrots when grown will be about an inch apart. 

T-he best way to keep carrots through the Winter, for 
family-use, is to bury them in moist sand. In this way, 
they may also be kept for feeding out to Horses, Cows, 
Hogs, ISheep, &c. and a cellar for the purpose might be 
made in a side-hill, covered with earth, and otherwise for- 
tified against the frost, to be sufficiently warm for that 
purpose. 

for the best method of boiling carrots for feeding Hogs, 
&c. see Steam-boiler. 

CATERPILLARS. See Insects. 

CATTLE^i'^^%% Ass, Foals, &c. Goats, Horse, Mares, 
Neat- CATTLE, ^EEP, and Swine. 

CHANGE AND IMPROVEMENT OF SEEDS. 
Most plants are found to degenerate to a certain degree, 
unless their seeds are frequently changed. This has been 
attributed, to their cultivation in climates where they are 
not indigenous. But this can hardly be the sole reason ; for 
it is found that most plants will be improved, by having the 
seeds brought from the east to the west, and vice versa. 

Providence, in making so large a world as this, seems to 
have designed that there should,*nevertheless, be a common 
acquaintance among the Nations which inhabit it. They 
are invited abroad, for conveniences which their own cli- 
mates do not furnish ; they are impeled to a general inter- 
mixture, from a knowledge that is is beneficial; and the 
benefits, to be derived from a change of seeds, are probably 
only in furtherance of the general design of a Community 
among Nations. 

But we are yet much in the dark, as it respects the best 
changes of seeds, and from what parts of the world they 
should be brought, to produce the greatest crops. Ought 
not this to become a matter of more general concern ? The 
Irish Farmers sow our flaxseed, and find great account in 
it. Would their flaxseed be equally beneficial, when sown 
here? We have known flaxseed brought fom Longisland^ 
and sown in Orange county, which produced nearly double 
the crop which the common seed there produced. Spring- 
wheat brought from Canada, and sown here (Herkimer 



46 FARMER^s ASSISTANT. 

county) greatly enhances the crop; but soon degenerates. 
Siberian wheat yielded largely in this Country, for a while. 
The seeds of apples brought from Europe will produce 
trees la^er than our own. For roots, it is generally sup- 
posed tnat seeds brought from a more southerly climate 
-^ are best. Indian corn, brought far from that quarter, will 
be in danger of ripening too late : That brought far from 
the north will ripen too early for a large crop. On the 
whole, the Farmer should make his changes as judiciously 
as possible; and in most instances he will '^en find the 
product of his crops greatly increased. 

But, in order to prevent seeds from degeneratlljg, by 
long use, we are of opinion that the plan pursued by Mr. 
Coo/ier, oi Newjersey, will be found elTectuali though we 
believe that seeds, improved according to his plan, would 
undergo a further improvement, by a suitable change of 
place. 

His method is to make frequent selections of the most 
perfect plants of every kind, and to cultivate the seeds of 
these, by themselves, for the purpose of raising new and. 
improved stocks of seed of every kind ; and further, when 
he raises seeds of plants, of which there are different s/ie- 
ciesi he is careful to set or plant them as much as one 
hundred yards from each other, in order that in propagating 
they should not mix breeds, and thus produce spurious or 
degenerated seeds, partaking more or less ot the qualities 
of each plant. . ^ 

Seeds are also sometimes susceptible of improvement, by 
growing varieties of the same plants together, for the pur-r 
pose of obtaining seeds of a medium between the two. But 
we will further illustrate these matters. 

Thus, in making selectiohs in wheat, for instance, search 
for such heads as have the largest seeds, and the greatest 
number in each head. In Indian corn, of any particular 
variety, for stalks of good size, with the greatest number 
of ears on each, and the ears the largest, most perfect of 
the kind, and best filled. In flax, for the longest stalks, 
and such as have, at the same time, seeds of good size. In 
pumpkins, for such stalks as bear the greatest number, and 
these the largest, and sweetest. In short, in making the 
selections, take the most perfect and valuable plants to be 
found, of whatever kind is wanted, and from each of these 
raise the progeny that is to serve as the stock for seed of 
the different plants to be cultivated. \^ 

In many kinds of plants, such as Ii^c^n corn, pumpkins. 
&c. the selections may be yearly repeated, without any 
essential inconvenience. In others, such as wheat, barley, 
&c. yearly selections would be too expensive. In such, 
let selections be made, say, every eight years; and from 



# 



FARMER'S ASSIST|HHf 47 

the seeds of the plants thus selected raise a yearly stock, 
sufficient to serve for seed. The more constantly the 
selections are made, however, the more Valuable may the 
products be expected from such seeds. IH^ 

In regard to the means, just mentioned, for preventing a 
degeneracy of seeds, by the intermixture of different sfieciea 
of the same plant, we will state a case. Of the Brassica tribe 
of plants there are different s/iecies, and also varieties of 
two of these, to ivit; cabbages of several varieties, common 
turnips of several, and the cabbage-turnip, or ruta-baga, of 
which there "are no varieties. The Cabbages are valuable 
for their heads, or leaves; the common turnip, for its bul- 
bous root; and rutabaga, for its bulbous stalk. 

Now, if seeds for ruta-baga, and for cabbagfes, were 
constantly raised beside each other, the consequence would 
be, that the bulb of the former would become less, and its 
foliage more extended; while the head or foliage of the 
cabbage would lessen, and its stalk become somewhat bul- 
bous : And if all the species and varieties of the plant 
were constantly grown together, for seed, they would grad- 
ually becomeiinbre assimilated, and the most valuable parts 
of each, of course, lessened in product. 

But sometimes an improvement of seed is to be effected, 
by growing varieties of the same plant together. Of Pota- 
toes, for instance, there are many varieties, so|ne prefera- 
ble for one particular quality, and some for^ aiiother; some 
for greatness of product, and. others for meiliti^f^y and fine- 
ness of taste; and, in such case, by growings tliem togeth- 
er, a race is produced which, in part, partakes of the good 
qualities of each. '^ ''^ 

The same may We observed'of many other plants ; and in 
some instances, perhaps, improvements might be made, by 
blending the most valuable qualities, of plants of different ' 
species, together. V 

Such, we conceive to be, the doctrine of Mr. Coofier; 
and we are of opinion that, in general, it is well founded. 
Mr. C. also contends, and we think with much truth, that 
there is a natural disposition in all seeds, or plants, 
gradually to become habituated to the soil, or climate, in 
which they are grown. 

CHANGE 'OF CROPS. Lands are least exhausted by 
a judicious change of such crops as are most suitable to 
the soil. Some lands are well suited for a great variety 
of crops; some, onl)^r particular growths, or for a few 
plants. Some, plants may be constantly raised in particular 
soils, without essentially exhausting them ; and some re- 
quire a constant change of ground, to grow to any advan- 
tage. 



48 FARMER»s ASSISTANT. 

Flax* in particular, cannot be fully grown on the same 
soil, oftener than once in seven years. Rye, on the con- 
trary may be raised for twenty years, or more, on grounds 
most suitable to its growth, if the stubble be turned under 
as soon as the crop is hary^sted. Certain crops are more 
suitable than others, as preparations for certain other crops. 

Generally speaking, changes of leguminous, culmiferous, 
and root-crops are most advisable, in soils which are well 
adapted to the growth of a variety of plants; such as the 
rich sandy, sandy loam, gravelly loam, dry mellow loams, 
and those with a large mixture of vegetable earth. 

We will, however, designate such soils as abound most 
in this Country, and the changes which may probably be 
found as well adapted to each as any others. 

1. A light redish sandy soil. This has naturally but 
little moisture, or other food of plants, until it has additions 
of more retentive earths, and other suitable manures. It is 
commonly too dry for Indian corn. First crop, turnips, 
well manured in the drills with a compost suitable to the 
soil. Second, peas,, with some gypsum applied, but not 
so much as to make the crop run too much to haulm. 
Third, rye, with red cloverseed harrowed in with a light 
harrow in the Spring, which operation will be of some 
service to the crop. The two following years, clover, with 
a light dressing of gypsum, after each mowing. 

The last crop may stand for seed; and let so much of 
the crop as includes all the heads of the grass be taken off 
with a sickle, and turn the rest under immediately; and let 
the ground lie, to begin again with turnips the next year; 
or, if the sward can be turned under supciently early, as 
in more southerly climates it may, a crop* of wheat may be 
raised on this clover-lay to advantage; and then begin 
''again with turnips. 

2. A dark-colored sandy soil. Such are "generally fer- 
tile and well adapted to the growth of Indian corn, which, 
together with potatoes, may be the first crop; then turnips; 
then wheat, if the turnips can be taken off sufficiently early; 
then clover, managed as before; then another crop of wheats 
as before ; and then begin with Indian corn and potatoes 
again. Or barley may come in after the turnips, with the 
cloverseed sown at the same tine. 

3. A sandy loam. This may have various degrees of 
fertility, according to the sand and the loam of which it is 
composed ; but, generally, a rotation similar to the last 
mentioned will answer very well. St 

4. A dry loam. Some of these soils are* well fited for 
crops of Indian corn, and perhaps for turnips. Generally, 
the mellow reddish-colored looms will be found best adapt- 
ed for these crops; and, where this soil 4^ found suitable 




FARMER'S ASSISTAWF. 49 



for them, t^ rotation may be similar to that last mentioned. 
With the aid of gypsum, grops of Indian corn i»gr com* 



monly be raised to advantage on such soils. im^^ 

Or, sometimes, ti^e first crop should be potato" well ^ 
manured with dung;"then Indian corn, manured with gyp- ,g^ 
9um; and,, when the ears are somewhat hardened, let the .^ 
crop be cut up and carried off the field, lo be set in shock^ 
to ripen, and the ground put in with wheat, ard clover to 
be sown in the Spring, as before^ In §ome cases, perhaps, 
a crop .of pumpkins might precede the wheat crop, to 
advantage; though this inust in a great measiii^ depend on 
the quantity of pumpkins thai can be raised on any given 
quantity of ground. 
See Pumpkin. 
5> A wet loam. The extent of the rotation, that can be 
profitably pursued on lands of this description, must depend 
much on the degree of superabundant moisture they con- 
tain. Where they are quite wet, but lew crops can be 
raised on them, to advantage,' except grasses. Such land-i 
are greatly improved by hollow-drainingc 

See HoLtOW DRAINS. 

Where they are but moderately wet, however, several*' 
kinds of crops may be successfully grown on them, especi- 
ally if the ground be raised in ridges j though these arc 
calculated more readily to injure the land, by washing the 
best parts of the soil away by heavy rains, if it lies consi- 
derably descending. In such case, it is most iadvisable to 
carry the ridges in such direction as will give them but a 
moderate descent. v> ' * 

Suph grounds are not suitable for rootSj though potatoes 
may be raised on them to some advantage. This may he 
the first crop; and, in such case, let the ground be sufii- * 
ciently mellowed with ploughing, and then ^ery shallow* 
furrows run for forming the beds in which to lay the dung; 
and when the seed is laid it may be cohered with a furrow 
of a one-hor^e plough, run on each side, so that in this way 
the growing roots will be more elevated than ii necessary 
in "^drier soils, - ^ - 

By thrc^wing up the ground in high narrow ridges, after 
the pota^o0s are taken ofl^/ the fermentation rnay more 
readily be kept up for the crop of the next; year, la this 
testate of the ground, a crop of Indian corn* may often be 
raised to advantage, by mellowing the ground in the Spring, 
and: planting on ridges jto be raised by iwo farrows/ thrown 
up against each other. %■ ^ 

^Let the^^ ground be thrown up in'ridges again Jn the Fall; 
and \he next Spring sow it with oats, barley, or Summer- 
wheat, according, -as the ground ^nd the climate may be 
most suitedior oj^e or the other pi these^ crops. 

■ 7 



so FARMER'S ASSISTANT, 

Good crops of flax may also be raised in su^ soils ^and 
they are naturally suitable for Winter-wheat, ^ where they 
are sufficiently dry to enable that cmp to withstand the 
^ Wint^^frosts. 

With the third crop grass-seeids should commonly be 
isown, which should be thos« of timothy or some other kind 
calculated to withstand the frosts of Winter in such soils. 
ClbverJ no doubt, will answer wlvere the ground is suffi- 
ciently dry for Winter-wheat. When the grasses begin to 

0dM% let the ground be broken up again. Oats, well har- 
rowed m off the sward, when this is properly turned over, 
will often answer well for the first grain-crop in such 
soils. . , 

6- Dark-colored dry loamsi The darkness pi the color 
is commonly owing to ''a large proportion of vegetable 
earth being mixed with the loam in such soils; and, as ve- 
getsible matter is calculated to i^ert41ize soils, those of this 
description are commonly well adapted to the growth of 
almost every plant, and an extensive rotation of crops, 
\vhicb>may be similar to those mentioned for a dry loam. 

^a^hey are not always so good for wheat, however, as some 
of the stiffer soils, vvhich have less vegetable matter in 
their composition ; nor so godd for turnips, as some fertile 
sandy soils. 

7. Dark-colored wet loam^. These being also largely 
mixed with vegetable matter, are often better calculated 
tor several growths of roots and grain, than the wet loams 
before mentioned. They are, generally speaking, most 
natural for many kinds of grasse^, and for a more or less 
extensive rotation of grain and root-crops, according as 
they may be more or less retentive of moisture. Hollow- 

^ draining may often be found a great improvement of such 
4 soils, where they are quite wet; as well for the most of 
grasses, as for crops of roots and of grain. 

8. A gravelly soil. This is commonly a poor earth for 
culture; but more or, less so, according to. the proportion 
oi^ gravel it contains, and the sort of stoney matter.compos- 
in^ the gravelly ingredient. . A fine schistic gravel niky 
sonoetimes be found quite productive. Generally speaking, 
however^ hard gravelly soils are best adi^pted to crops of 
rye and red-clover, alternately; and with the aid of gypsum, 
for which manure this soil is peculiarly adapted, and with 
deep ploughing, tolerably good crops of each may be con- 
stantly raised. With the aid of gypsum, good crops of 
buckwheat may be had from gravelfy soils which are natu- 
yally very sterile f and tfiis, instead of rye, may be the in- 
termediate crop between those of clover, from Jwhich the 
most profit is to be expected. 




FARMER^s ASSISTAJnfj^r # 



' S(|int{oir^ay also be grown to considerable advantage, «> 
on hard gravels. See Grasses. Bdt on fine! schistic 
gravelly soils, and those approaching more to the clwracter 
of that of which we "shall next speak, crops of pS^atoes, ^ 
l-ndian corn, and even tolerable growths of wheaf, may- be 
bad, in rotation, beside clover, with the aid of gypsum and ^ 
other suitable manures, 

9. A gravelly loarii/ There are various degrees ol fcr«. 
tility to be found in this soil, according to, the quality of 
the loam, andvthe kind and quantity of gravej. contained in 
it: But, generally speaking, it is a soil prope^ calculated, 
with the aid of gypsum, and other suitable iioanures, for a 
rotation, say, first of potatoes, then Indian corn, followed by 
wheat in the Fall, after the crop of corn has been cut UpV 
or, barley in the Spring, and then clover. Soiine ot the 
mellower and richer sorts of this soil may also answer well 
for turnips, carrots, and other roots, and generally for almosx 
all kinds of crops suitable for dry upland soils. 

10. Clayey soils. Real stiff clays form but a sma)l pro- 
portion of the arable lands of this Country ; though there is 
a considerable portion ot them that have more or less alu- 
mine in their composition. The more obdurate soils of 
this description, when long manured with lime, and other 
ingredients, lose that adhesion which renders them slo un- 
ple^l^sant in cultivaiiort, and they then beconiemore^i assimi- 
lated' to loamy soils, .v 

Clays, in their original state, are unfriendly to thje growth 
of root-crops, and some of tliem are too retentive of water 
for crops of wheat; but, *if they are sufficiently dry, they 
are well adapted for this grain, ^nd tolerably well for oats^ 
barley, red-clover, timothy, and some other grasses; though, 
for all the natural meadow-grasses, the weter clay^ are best. 
Stiff clays, being but little assisted by gypsum, do not pos- 
sess the advantages common to most •other soils in this 
Country, which' are powerfully aided by this stimulant. 

The extent of any rotation of Crops, on clayey lands, 
must depend much on the proportion of clay they niay 
contain, if clayey- soils be sufficiently dry, with a propor- 
tion of calcareous or silicious earth mixed with them, they 
may be then wdll suited for rotations of such culmiferou^ 
and leguminous crops as may be found most advantageous; 
% and also, for some of the root-crops, particularly potatoes. 
The rotation in such case may be similar to that for dry 
loams, substituting the potatoe- crop for that of turgips. . 

It the soil be merely a stiff dry olay, the first crop may 

be, oats, well harro,wed in on the sward properly turned 

o'^er : Such, at least, is a common and successful practice 

fc.'; ill Greatbritain. As soon as the crop 'is harvestecl, turn the 

stubble undex; and in the Fall thrQW jjp the ground into 



ig FARMER'S ASSISTAKT. 

high narrow ridges. In the Spring, cleave these dowa-and 
prepare the ground for barley;, and manure the ground 
with a compost, suitable to the soil, betore this crop is 
^own. 'Plough up the ground again, as soon alter harvest- 
^ ing as possible ; put it in wheat in the Fall ; and, in the 
H Springs harrow in clover and timothy-seed. After the 
crops (if grass begin to fail, begin the. rotation with oats, as 
before. ■ , . : 

In England^ the bean-crop comes in as ajp^rt of the 
rotation in clay soils ; but probably it would npt answer so 
Veil in this Country; or at least this would seem to be 
infered, from the circumstance, that this culture has nevfrr 
been iniroduced here; though probably it might be found 
benificial on farms whwe clays entirely abound, as neither 
peas nor 'Indian corn can be raised to advantage on such 

boils. , 

! Where stiff clays are too wet for wheat, they admit of 
bui little charge; and should be kept mostly in timothy or 
other grasses suitable to the soil. The changes may be 
oats, and then Summer- wheat, or perhaps barley, as before 
mentioned. • 

It is difficult, hcrwever, to designate particularly the most 
suitable changes ot crops for every soil; as they are more 
exactly to be ascertained by the known products of la^ds^ 
when properly cultivated. But sach crops, in rotation^ as 
are found tq yield most clear profit, and 'are at thesarne 
time best suited to follow each other, should u^tSally be 
cultivated, after 'making, due allowance for the greater ex- 
haustion of the soil, occa^sioned by the growing of sdme 
than of others. 

Generally speaking, the leguminous and the root-crops, 
with the exception of potsftoes, are the least exhausting. 
^ye is the least of a scourger, of the culmlicrous crops,, 
'and perhaps Indiaiffcorn the most so., The root-crops, and 
particularly turnips, are to 4),e recommended for the profits ^^^ 
they usually afford ; for their being less injurious to the ^^*' 
gr'^und; and for their being good preparatives for other 
crops. ' ' , . 

There are several others, not here mentioned, which, m 
many instances, may be found advisable to cultivate ; ^and 
Ssom.etitries it n>ay be best to follow the almost exclusive 
cuUivalioa .of certain plants, which may be found best f 
adapted for^^atticular pieces of land. 

CHEESE. For making this article, take the following 
directions: Make ^our 'milk blood-w^tm, and put in your^ 
runnet ; but no morfe than will just nriake the curd com^ ^ . 
Add an ounce oi fine salt to so much curd as will makem |w » 
chttfee of fifteen pounds, and in that proportion fof» ^ 



greater or i|€s. Stir the curd till it is gathered ; put it in 
a strainer, and with your hands work put all the whey ; 
then lay it in a clean linen cloth, put it, in the hoo%, and, 
covering it with the clotby.put it in the press, and* let it 
stand there two hourB; then take it out, rub it over^^ith ^' 
fine salt, put it in another dry cloj^,-, and put it ii^ the press > ^-^ 
eight hours} then take it out again,, put it in another xlry 
cloth, and ppt it in the press again, where it is to remain 
till the next cheese is ready. v 

When taken out of the press, put it ffi brine twenty-four 
hours^ and let the brine have as much saltpetr^in it as will 
Jie on a shilling. Some little additions ot saU'ind saltpetre 
must be occasionally made to the brine ; and let it be 
cleansed as often- as necessary, by heating it and tak'ihg off 
the scum. When you take the cheese out, dry it with a 
cloth; bind it round with a long string to make it keep its 
shape, which must be kept round it for some days, and let 
it be daily turned on the shelf, for two months. 
, Let the evening milk be put with that of the morning; 
and, to make the best cheeses, let none of the cream be 
taken away. If the evening milk) however, be skimed, and 
added to that of the morning, itvvill make tolerable cheese. 
Skim-mlli cheeses are also made ; but they are not worih 
much. 

-The method of making the much-admired Stiltoncheesc, 
HI England, as communicated by Mr. A/onA-, is as fol- 
lows: 

^ Take the night's cream and put .it to the morning's 
milk with the runnet. When the curd'is come, it is not to ^ 
be broken, as is done with other cheeses; but take it out 
with a soil-dish altoge-ther, and place it in a seive to draift 
gradually, and as it drains keep gradually pressing it, till it 
becomes firm and dry • then place it in a wooden iioop^ 
afterwards to be kept dry on boards, turned frequently, with 
cloth binders roulid it, whicli^are to be tightened as occa- 
sion recjuires. The Dairy- maid must not be disheartened, 
ff she dqes not succeed perfectly in her first attempt. 

* In the" dairies which I visited (says Mr. Monk) the 

ijcheeses, after being taken out of the wooden hoop, were 
bound tight round with a cloth, which Was changed every 
day, until the cheese became firm enough to support itself. 

I Alter the cloth was taken off, they were rubed every day 
'4II over, for two or three months, with a brush, and, if tlie 
weather was damp or moist, twice.a day 5 and, e'v en before 
the cbth was taken olff, the top and bottom were well rub- 
1^ every day. 
^.f The're is no doubt (says he) but those cheeses require 

' ^great deal of attention, owing to their richness and thick' 
cess. They run frorii eight to ^ighifeeii pounds,' 



5^4 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

They are never better than when about a year old. 
They sell in England from twplvis to fourteen pence ster- 
ling per pound.^ 

But no good cheese can be made, tinless the runnet 
# be good. 
1^ * See Runnet. 

The room where cheeses are to be kept for drying should 
be^ark, to keep out flies; and, to prevent these from de- 
positing their eggs in the cracks of the cheeses, let them 
be smeared over with a mixture of salt butter an<J tar. To 
give them a^fine color, let a little anpotto be put in the milk. 
This is harhijess: But beware of coloring them with any 
thing that is {)oisonous. 

The whey, after the curd has been gathered, is nourish- 
ing for sVine. It may, also be converted into good vinegar, 
by being exposed to the sun, for a few days; and this is, no 
doubt, the most profitable u^e to which it can be applied. 

CHURN. A good kind of churn is the oblong square, 
which is turned on two pivots by a crank- The pivots are 
not placed in the centre of the two ends ; but one is placed 
at one side of the end, and the other at the opposite side 
of the other end, so that the churn is suspended diagonally 
oti the pivots. This, when it is turned, gives the milk a 
violent motion from one end of the churn to the other | 
while, at the same time, it turns very easily. The churn 
ought to be about of the following proportions: One that 
is three feet long ought to be one foot wide one way, and- 
about nine inches wide the other way; so as to form -d Jlat 
oblong square. The pivots are made of iron, aiidare rivet- 
ed on the outside. A square hole is made on one side, for 
leting in the milk, and taking out the butter; and a square 
piece is made, exactly fiied to fill up the hole, which is 
fastened down to its place by a little iron bar across it, with 
a staple at each end. , 

Another kind of churn, that is much approved, is the 
barirfel-churn, which is turned on pivots, fastened on the 
centre ol each end. Two boards, like shelves, are fixed 
within, opposite to each other, extending from the inner 
circumference about half way to the center; and as the 
vessel turns the milk keeps pouring off the one or the 
other, and thus is kept in violent motion. It has a hiole at 
the side for puting in the milk, and taking out the butter, 
similar to the one just described. 

Either of these kinds of churn is much easier worked, 
tlian those in common use. 

Some, w4io keep large dairies, make use of a Horse fq 
churning. In this case, the churn is an upright one, nearl 
aiinilar in shape to. those in 'common use, and, instead af a 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. as 

dasher, aiwupright pfece with the lower end set in the 
bottom of tne vessel, and extending through its lid, having 
two wings full of holes within, is turnelF round, with suffi- 
cient velocity, by means of a cogwheel and trunnelhead, 
similar to those of a gristmfil. ^ * ' \. ^ 

A churn of this kind might also be turned with a sw%ep, 
by hand, or even by wind machinery, when the winds blow. 
'&^" Wind-machinery. ' \\, i, _/, . '^^\' ' 

If tl^e winds should not blow wftl6h''the churnitig shoal4 
be done, aod the particular time for this is not very essen- 
tial, the work might be done by a Horse, or by hand. 

We offer this with some reluctance, howp|er ; for fear 
of being thought more theoretical than practical. 

An improvement in the dasher of the common churn 
has also been made, by which that kind of chum Is con- 
sidered by many to be, for common purposes, equal, if not 
superior, to any in use. > 

The dasher turns on the handle," by beftig fixed to it by a 
piypt. The dasher is merely two cross- pieqies, say,_ three 
Inches square, put together, by being let into each other, 
which then form four wings. These are cut beveling on 
each side, at an angle of forty-five degrees, so that they 
stand diagonally ; the whole being very similar to the 
lyings of the little windmills (so called) which are set up, 
on poles, to be turned by the wind. • 

As this dasher goes down, in the milk, it turns one way,, 
on its pivot in the lower end of the handle, and as it comes 
up, it turns the other way; and this produces an agitation 
of the milk, better calculated for producing the butter, 
than any n[>et hod ever yet known. It is so efficacious in its 
Q|)eration, that the churning must be performed ntioderatelyj 
or the butter will come too soon, and be stveUedf as it is 
technically called by some. 

Mr. jFisher, the Inventor of this dasher, obtained a pre- 
mium in England, for the discovery. The churning with 
this dasher is not attended with that splasliing of the milk, 
so troublesome in the churn with the common dasher. 

Oak is generally prefered for churns, as pine is apt to 
communicate something of its taste to the butter. 

CIDER. To make the best cider, there are several re- 
quisites. The apples should be of one sort, and of the 
best kind. T^ey should be perfectly sound, ripe, and 
clean. Those which are shook from the trees by^a gentle 
shaking are best; and all knoty, wormy, and roten ones 
should be rejected. Such as are hot of this pririiie rate may 
be made into common cider, *^ 

The apples thus selected should be spread on a floprj 
raised from the ground, with a cover over it, and the sides 



•ii: 



i« riVaMER's ASSISTANT. 

enclosed. Here the y are to lie for^the purposjD of sweats 
Ing. They should lie about four 6r fiye days, when the 
weather is dry and warm; but longer, when wet and cool; 
and let them be dried, by exposure to the^un, the roten 
^ones thrown away, and ground immediately in a clean 

mill. " , ^ 

When the cheese is made, it should stand about twelve 
or fourteen hours, befpfe the press is put upon its ^^^ M^ 
delay in pressing wilt greatly improve the ciWi^v. 

The best plan of making the cheese is, to ctff^pff the but 
ends of the straw, and lay it along on the fo^ur sides, with 
the cut ends^fxrojecting out about four inches, on each side, 
beyond the extent intended to be giyen the cheese : Then, 
with a strait smooth board, made for the purpose, about 
five inches wide, and of sufficient length, you commenc* 
farming one s\de of the layer of pumace, by building it up 
cbmpacily against the bpard, which is set upright on its 
edge. When that side is formed, take away the board, and 
in the same way proceed to form. the next, and so pn till 
the four sides are built up. Then lay on another layer o£ 
straw, as before, and proceed with the board to build up 
the four sides of the next layer of pumace, and thus you 
proeeed building up the cheese as nearly perpendicular as 
possible. T 

In this way, the cheese,^ by having the straw to lap .well 
in the middle, or centre, is in no danger of bursting open 
in pressing, as is often the case when large cheeses are 
made in the common way, with the straw brought round 
the outside of each layer of the pumace. We have seen 
cheeses made, in tlie manner here recommended, large 
enough to run OiT twenty- four barrels of cider. 

The first and last runing of a cheese should be put by 
itself, as \t is not so good as the rest. In pouring the cider 
into the cask, let there bea fetrainer of coarse cloth in the 
bottom of the funnel, to keep.out the pumace. New casks, 
OP those which have just been emptied of brandy, are the 
best. If old casks are to be used, it is of the utmost im- 
portance to have them perfectly clean. When they are 
first emptied, they should be well washed, and then bunged ,, 
>,iip tight. For want of this precaution, they often become 
" tnust'y, and then they spoil all. the liquor afterwards pUt 

into them. . *- ^^ i 

The only successful method o.f cleansing,. musty ^.^skS; 
* we have ever heard of, is that communicated by M.-C^wor- 
fnandcs, which he'learned of a French Peasant, as appears 
in *The Annals of A^ts knd Manufactures,* published m 
• France, and is as foUoivs : .' . ^ 

« Make up in quantity what will be equal to about 
sixteenth-part of what the cask' tc be cleansed will hold) of 



FARMER'S ASSIStIkI?^ 57 

the following ingredf^tUs, viz. about four pounds of common 
salt, and one of alliim, added to a mix'ture of watfer with 
Cowdung fresh droped from a Cow (no other will answer) ; 
put the whole in a pot andT heat it almost to tjoiling, stirjng 
it constantly; pour it thus heated into the cask, and shake 
it well, turning it rpund on every side, and continue shak- 
ing It every hour or two, taking out the bung ,5yhile shak- 
ing, lest it burst. I ^ i, 

< When it? contents hav^ become cold, pbur them out, 
and rinse it elesin; then pour in some hot wat^f, in which 
about two pounds more of salt, and one of alluq^ have been 
dissolved; sh^ke the cask well on every sidfe, as before, 
and while the water is yfct warm pour it out; drain the 
cask, and bung it up tight, till wanted for use. ' - ' 

* This (says Mr. L.^ will not only make the cask perfect?, 
ly sweet, b\it will even restore j|)ne to sweetness againf 
that has been injured by being pt|fpn a musty cask.* 

When casks have more or less ofv a sou^ smell, Mr. 
L* Hommedieu directs to take at the rate of, about a pinjt of 
unslacked lime for a barrrel, put it in, and pour in three or 
four gallpns of hot water, or more for a larger cask ; shake 
it well on every side, giving it some vent, as before men- 
tioned; let it stand till cooled, and then rinse it with cold 
water, Repp^t the operation, if the cask does not then 
smeir perfectly sweet. Most probably, a suitable quantity 
of wood-ashes, would more effectii^Uy eradicate any sour- 
ness in the cask, ii ' ' ' 

After it has been filled with the liquor, the next prQoess 
is the fermentation, and this is a matter of some nicety, i 

There are \three fermentations; the vinous, the acid, and 
the. putrid. When the first ceases .the second begins, and 
wiiifen that ceases the thlrd'begins. v Si'he first is only neces- 
sary' for cider, and care must be taken -to stop all further 
fermentation; as soon as this is over. This is known by the 
liquor ceasing to throw up little bubbles to the top... Then 
too all the pumace is raised up, and, if suffered torifemain 
there, will again sink to the bottom and render the liquor 
turbid. Let this time then be carefully observed, and let 
the liquor then b^,,d raw n off, not top closely, and put into 
other clean casks, or bottled, closed tight,^ and set away in 
a cool celldl^ Ii«t a gallon of Trench bran^f^; added to 
every barrel. ,^^^ 

But, to^furthei* improve it, let it undergo a further ope- 
ration, as follows: As you draw off the cider from the 
first casks, put it into fresh ones, fiUihg each aboflit three- 
quarters full, and set ihem away till Winter; at which time 
let them be exposed^ tP the <frosts, until one-Jialf or even 
two-thirds of the contents of each are frozen; give the li- 
qour some vent while freezinc: ; draw off the unfrozen plrt, 



# 



58 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

** bottle it, or put it in clean new casks, and set it away in a 
cool cdlar, and let it remain there for two or three years., 
and h will then nearly equal the best wines. 
See further, Wine. 
If it should require clarifying, let it be done with isin- 
glass, or it may be leached through a tub of powdered 
charcoal, which will render it very clear; but the" tub 
should be dbvered close to prevent any evaporation of the 
spirit. To clarify it with isinglass, pour intp each vessel 
about a pint of the infusion, of about sixty '.'graiins of the 
most transpaicent of this glue in % little white wine and rain 
or river wafer, stired well together, after being strained 
through a linen cloth. This ^cous substance spreads 
over tl^ surface of the liquor, and carries all the dregs 
with itlo the bottom. . > 

> Some boil cider in the Spring, for Summer-usej but the 
practice is a very bad onei^?j)articularly w^heri/ boiled in brass 
Icettles. If any boiling be' ever proper for cider, it must be 
as it comes from the press. This is the proper method of 
treating water cider, or that which is extracted from the 
pumace after the cheese has been pressed. The pumace 
i3 put into casks in the evening, with a due proportion of 
warm water thrown on it, and in the rnibfrning it is ttiade 
into a cheese, and pressed off again; the liquor is then to 
be boiled till all the sciim has risen and been skimed bff, 
and then it is to be put away in casks in a cool cellar, and 
treated like other cider. It fernaents but little, and makes 
. a pleasant drink for the next Summer, if bottled, or other- 
wise kept well. Perhaps this would be a good method of 
^ treating all dder. < 

*- Cider may be kept lor years in casks, without ferment- 
ing, by burying thetn deeply under ground, or immersing 
them, in spring water r^lttii^ when taken up the cider will be 
very fine. / 

A dri'ik, called cider-royal, is madeof the best runing of 
the cliiiiE-se, well clarified, with six or eight gallons of 
^rench brandy; or good cider brandy, added to a barrel: 
JS€i the vessel be filled ful|, bunged tight, and set in a cool 
cellar, and in the course of a twelvemonth it willbe a fine 
i drink. If good rectified whiskey be usedi instead of bran- 
dy, ^t will answer very well. / ''^> 

A quart of honey, or molasses, and a quart of brindy, or 
other spin is, added to a barrel of cider, will improve the 
liquor very nnuch, and will restore that which has become 
too flat and insipid. To prevent its becoming pricked, or 
* to cure i^ when it is so, put a little pearl-ashes, or other 
mild afkali, into the cask. „, A lump of chalk broken in 
pieces, and thrown in, is also good. Salt of tartar, when 
the Qider is about to be" used, is also recommended. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 59- 

To refine cider, and give it a fine amber-color, the fol- " 
lowing method is much approved of. Take the \lfctes of 
six egi^.^, wiih a handful' of fine beach sand, washed clean j 
stir them well together; then boil a quart of molasses ^oy/n. 
to a candy, and cool it by pouring m cider, and put this, 
together with the eggs and sand, into a barrel of cider, and 
mix the whole well together. When thus man^cd^ it will * 
keep for many j^ears. -Molasses alone will also refine cider, 
and give it .^higher color; but, to prevent the molasses 
making it ^p:k, let an equal quantity of brandy be add- 
ed to it Skiro-milk, with some lime slacked in it, and 
mixed with it, or with the white of eggs with the shells 
broken in, is also gooiJi^Jfor clarifying all liquors, when 
well mixed with them. A piece of fresh bloody m^at. put 
into tfib cask, will also refine the Jiquor and serve for it to 
feed on. ' ^ " ^ 

To prevent ttie fermentation o^|(^r, let the jcask be first 
strongly fumigated with burnt suiphur| then put in some 
of the cider, burn more sulphur in the cask, stop it tight, 
and shake the whole up together; filh the cask, bung it 
tight, an|^^ut it away in a cool cellar. 

To brmg^pn a>ft;r mentation, take three pints of yeast for 
a hogshead, ad<j as much jalup as will lie on a sixpence, 
mix them with some of the elder, beat the mass up till 
it is frothy, then pour it into the casTs. and stir it up well. 
Keep the vessel full, and the bung open, for the troth and 
foul stuff to work out. In about fifteen days, the froth will 
be clean and wb'tej then, to stop the'fermentation, rack the 
cider off into a cleSn vessel, add \wo gallons of brandyf or 
wellrecufied v\ tdskey, to it, and bung it up. Let the cask 
be full, and ^keep the venthole open for a day or two. By' 
this proce'sB, elder that is poor, ana ill-tasted, may be won- 
derfully improved. Let it be refined by sdme of^he meth- 
ods before described. 

To cure oily, cider, take one ounce of salt of tartar, and 
two and a half of _. sweet spirit of nitre, in ^ gallon cri; milk, 
for a hogshe^Ld. *fo cure ropy cider, take six pounds of 
powdered allum, and stir it into a hogsfiead; then rack it 
o# and ciarify it. ' ^ ^^ 

To col(4;«pider,'^take a quarter of a pound of sugar, burnt •'^ 
black, an^^issolved in half a pint of hot water, for a hogs- 
head; add V quarter of an ounce of allum, to set the 
color.' ■- - ' ,' -■ v,_ . ■- ^-'.i "^ ' 

Cider brandy ipixed with an equal quantity of JSney, or 
clarified sugar, is much recomrtiended by some fw improv- 
ing*common^ cider; so tbat,^.\yhen refined, it ma&e made 
as strong, anS as pleasant, asWe most of win«i^" 

Cider has been made in Gree^tbritain, of such superior 
quality as to command a price of sixty guineas a hogshead. 



60 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

^If such can be made there, it can also be made here, where 
our cliipate in general is more favorable for the production 
of apples of the best qualities. *" 

Mr. Wynkoofi (of Pa) says that the Virginia crabapple 
is the best for making cider within his knowledge. 
See Crabapple. 

We will ^Iso add his method of jpcianaging the cider from 
that apple. ^ > 

He says that when, by placing the ear ajt^l^e bung, a 
hisbing noise is no longer heard, then the ferni^tation has 
ceased ; and then the cider should be drawn off. If this 
be not done, the pumace at the bottom will, during a damp 
or warm state ot the weather^ i;^e up, which produces a 
second fermentation, of the acetous kind, which hu|?t#Uhe 
liqour. ' . ,4 ■ " ' ''"'"? " ' . '# 

When the cider is drawn off into other clean casks, an 
ebullition pervades the nqi|or; and while th'iit continues the 
bung is laid loose in "the hole, and tlie^gimblethole is kept 
open till the ebullition subsides. Then put in the bung 
tight, leaving the gimblethole partly open a little longer, 
and then close that up. ' ,;< 

He fines his cider after the ebullition, which takes place 
after ihe second racking, has subsided. At this time, he 
draws off some gallons of cider into a small cask ; to which 
he adds isinglass, pouhded and unraveled into shreds, at 
the rate of two ounces, for a hogshead ; and the liquor thus 
drawn off, with the isinglass in it, is stired up for three or 
four days, so that it becorttes diluted to a thin jelly; when 
the Whole is strained through a fine hairseive, and put into 
a clean hogshead, which is filled with the rest of the^cider 
4irom which a pArt was drawn, as before mentioned. 

He racks off his cidei* sfx times; first, \^hen th«' ferment- 
ation has ceased ; second, when the ebullition ftas ceased; 
third, when drawn off to be put on the fining; fourth, when 
drawn off the lees of the fining; fifth, when the consequent 
cbulliiibilf has again ceased, and the cider has lain still six 
or eight days ; when it is then drawn off into clean barrels, 
or* bottles. He sells this cider for upwards of fourteeen 
dollars a barrel. 

i - ^ 

CLAY. The basis of this earth is alumine. A quality 
peculiar to clay is, that,'by reason of its aliimiae, it con- 
tracts, vihtn dried or heated, and (jjgjfcpands again,' when 
moistened. A clayey sbil therefore is a^vays to be known 
by us cracking open in dry weather; ana the more clayey, 
the wid^vvill be these openings. ^ * 

Wheye the soil is very clayey, and at the same time wet, 
it is worth but little f(^;r the plough j^^jthough it may be 
good for mowing, or pasture; but if' the ^adhesion* of the 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 61 

soil be destroyed by proper manures, and nP5e laid dry hj^ 
hollow-draining, it then becomes a fine soil for most pro- 
ductions. 

See Manures, aiid HollowtDRAInS. 
Some nicety is requisite, as to the proper tinw for 
ploughing this ground. If it be too dry, it will not crum- 
ble; andyif too wet, the ploughing will only render it more 
conf^act. The hard clods are easiest mellowed by the^ 
plough, after they h^ve been merely wet through with a 
gentle r&iiit 

See further, Earth^. 

- -• 

. CLEARING OF LA^S. But little need be said on 
this subject; as he who has to undertake the clearing new 
landpwill acquire more knowledge, from practice, of the 
best methods of subduing our heavy forests, than fropi any ^ 
essay on the subject. He willi<%d that the essential point 
is to put his shoulder to the wlfciel, and persevere undaunt- 
edly; and in a fe^w years he will find his exertions amply 
compensated, by the pleasing scenes and profitable im- 
proye«ients which shall have been made around his dwell- 
ing. ■'.''" ^^r ■ "■ -, 

When new Settlers first go into the woods, they have to 
Spend much valuable time ia/ hunting up their Oxen and 
Milchcows, which, for want of an enclosed pasture, haye ' 
to run in the woods; and to remedy this, as soon as possi- 
ble, we wpuld propose the folljlit^ing : About the first of 
June, take a suitable piece of ground, cut out the bushesj ', 
and all the small growth ot timbe^r which shall be under a 
certain size, , say a foot over at the but; pile all the^brush 
round those trees which are left standing. In a dry time, 
in the ii|ci>tith of August, set firei^ them, and the fires w!u . 
kill the trees* left standing ; then'^^pile and burn whtt*lies on 
the ground, which is soon done, and in due season harrow 
in a crop of wheat or rye, and in the following Spring sow 
the ground over with herdsgrass. The crop of wheat or % 
rye, sown in this way, will be nearly as good as' if the tim-^ 
ber were all talt^n off; and the year following the ground 
will afford the requisite suj^l]^ of pasture and hay. When 
the limbjs^of thfe standing trees begin to rot and fail off, cut-^. 
the wlyiiiU down, and let them lie there; as the pastul'e" 
will not*'be injured, but rather eyenlually benefited, by the 
trees lying and roting upon it. This method of jtilling 
trees by fire is. libwever, only recommended H;tvhere they 
are such aSi canfiot be killed by girdlingi such as*beach, 
■naple, basswood, &c. /r ' |g. 

New Settlers, who will take this method ofi^rovi^ing a 
supply oi pastG^ and hay, will always find their account ia 
two ways: >It is turning the grounds j^l^mmediate profits 



^* FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

with the least fossible expense ; and the surplus of hay and 
pasture will command an extra price; as those articles are 
always starce, during the commencement of ney^ settle- 
ments* 

CElMATE. All .seeds are to be planted, or sown, at 
such time as is suitable to the climate. In northerly cli- 
miites, of in very elevated situations, the Spring and Au^ 
tumn press closer upon each other; and there the Spring- 
crops must be planted, or sown, later, and thievFall- crops 
earlier, than in more temperate climates. The right time 
for planting and sowing must, therefore, be ascertained by 
the judgment of the Farmer, founf^d on due experience, 
and a knowledge of the climate in which he lives. 

Climate depends greatlj^on altitude as well as latkitde. 
This is no where more strikingly exemplified, than on the 
sides pf Moiiat^tna. ^ W^en, at the base of that niountain, 
the Peasants are reaping their Spring-crops, on its highest 
cultivable parts they ai'e busied in sowing the same crops; 
and at its extrenie point of elevation is perpetual Winter. 
^ The' highest lands which lie between the Mohaw.k and 
Blackriver, in this Statue, are not fifty miles nor^h of Alba- 
ny; yet the climate, oh this 'leight, is at least six degrees 
of latitude colder, than at that city. 

From a knowledge of these facts, it is obvious,vthat the 
^atne productions will not thrive equally well in '|11 place«, 
under the same degree dfelatitudej, even though the soil be 
the same ; and, knowing,this, it becomes necessary for the 
Farmer to regulate his system of farming accordingly. 
.'■■" ' "' 

#,^LOVER (Trifolium firatejise.J 'VVhite-cloyer is a 
very fine grass, affording the sweetest pasture and hay; 
but the product is too small, when compared wi^h red- 
clover, which is nearly as sweet, to be worth cultivatini*. 

The almost universal use of red-clover, upon dry upland 
soils, is, it. would s^em, an indication of its superiority over 
•most other'grasses; but, it certainly neVer can be made to 
yield so^great a clear profit as Lucernes where this grass is 
cultivated in a suitable soil ^d plimate. 
,^^ See also Qrasses, for the great product of the Fioria. 

One excelence of red-clover is, that it is thed^ly grass 
which can with advantage be turned under by ine plough, 
and thus, with one ploughing only, ens^e a good crop of 
wheat or other grain. The crop, ho\^fever, will be best 
where'' the clover ,v;is mowed, and not fetf off by cattle. 
Another g^od quality is its superiority Over almost all 
other gra^^^ in mellowing and enriching the soil. It de- 
rives most \»f its nourishment from a considerable depth; 
and, like all tap^ropted plants, it exhausts the land but 



♦. 



FARMER'S ASSrSTANT. 63 

little; while, at the same time, when plou'^ii under, it 
forms a good green-dressing for the soil. ^ 

Green clover is a good food for Swine, during l^^mer; 
and clover-hay, when boiled, is also found to be a good food 
for them, during Winter. Mr. Livingston makes mention 
of a Farmer. at Rhinebeck, who fed his Hogs, during Win- 
ter, with no other food ^3Ut boiled clover, and that they 
M^f^ )^^P^ ^" goo^ condition. The clover used ior them 
was preserved by being salted, a half peck to a load. It 
was cut an(i left in winrows about six hours, then put into 
small cocks. The next day, about noon, these were open- 
ed ; toward* evening they were hauled home, and laid away 
with salt, which kept tl^ hay green all the year. ;* 
3ee further, SwiNi^and Steamboiler. 

T^kp quantity of r&d-cloverseed, to be sown to the acre, 
is abtnit fourteeo pounds, and none but clean seed ought to 
be sown. ^ ^^ ^ ^' 

The best crops ^withwhichrto sow clover, are barley, 
oats, and Springiwheat. It is, however, frequently sown 
in the Spring, on Wintef-wheat, or rye; but in this Way it 
often happens that the seeds do not grow, owing to their 
not being covered. This difficulty may, however, be obvi- 
ated,, by giving the ground a brushing, by draging a large 
bunch of bushes, tied together, over it, where the land is 
rough; or by giving it a light harrowing,' where it is 
smooth ; either of which methods, but particularly the lat- 
ter, will be a benefit to the grb^th of wheat or rye. It 
may also be sown with, Winter- wlieat, or rye, in the Fall; , 
but there is danger ir^ that case of its being killed by the 
succeeding Winter,. ;- 

> Clover yields tv*^ crops in the season, if the land be^mi 
good heart; unless it be in the ibortherly parts of the State, 
where the second growth wilf generally be too small to 
mow \p advantage, and is, therefore, best to be fed off. ,, 

When a crop of red-cloverseed is to be raised, let it be 
from the last crop of the second year ; as suffering the crop 
to ripen injures the roots for a succeeding crbp. In the.^ 
first crop, of either season, very little seed is to be found* . 
In more'northerly climatesy,^wj!^€re a second crop is scarce- 
ly to be^afforded, let the clover be pastured the second|| 
year, u^ about the tenth of June; an<J then let it grow ' 
up ior the' seed-crop, which is to stand'tiK'the seeds are 
fully ripel / Jfe" ' - 

As this growthTWien it has stood so long, is of but little 
value for hay, #e believe the best plan is merely to cut off, 
with the sickle, so much of the crop as to gji^er all the 
heads ; and then to turn the rest under with thiP^loug^, a^ 
a green-dressing for the soil. ^ 

See Green- DRESSING. a # <<». 



64 FARMER'S ASSISTANT, 

-^ 

By this management the land will be essentially improv* 
ed |or bearing the next crdp, and the expense of threshing 
out the seed will be greatly diminished, on account of its 
being contained in a much less quan^^ity of the crop, than 
where it is mowed off with the sithe. 

The ]part containing the seed must be well dried in the 
sun, beiore the seed can readily^ be threshed out, tvhich 
operation may be performed with Horses. About tfjfiyjk 
busiiels of seed may be expected from an acrej an^ iT 
usually sells for about eleven dollars per bushel,^ 

If it be desirable to keep land constantly in red-clover, 
it may be done by sowing about half the usual allowance of 
seed every Spring on the groun^and giving it a harrow- 
ing; which will assist the growtlfof the plants of clover 
already in the soil, and serve to cover the seeds. ; :^ 

For producing the greatest crops of clover, it is advisa- 
ble to give the ground a!.slight dressing with gypsum, 
aftef each mowing. Half a bushel of this manure may be 
strewed equally over an acre, by its being well mixed with 
a suitable proportion of dry earth, or ashes and fine salt; 
the twb latter ingredients being useful to the soil, ^s an 
additional manure. ^ ' ' f 

Under Nutriment OF Food, it will be seen, that red- 
clover is among the most nourishing grasses; though per- 
haps not so muc^ so as some 9thers. The hay ma^e from 
it is, however, found to pfoduqe too great a degree of 
looseness, when fed to H<jiitses, and on thi^ account should 
have a mixture of timothy or other suitable grass grown 
with it, when it is intende,d;for hay for these animals. 
See further. Grasses. 

COMPOSTS. See Manures. 

^ CORNSHELLER.; A machine for shelling Indian torn. 
It was invented in l^assachusetts, and patented by the In- 
ventor. The expense of the machine is about twenty dol- 
lars. It separates th€ grain perfectly clean from the cob, 
at the rate of about half a bushel in a minute. One Hand 
is requisite to turn the rdiHer^ and another to throw in 
the ears. The wofk proceeds as fast as the ears can b« 
thrown in Singlv, or one at a time. ;i^^fe: 

Those ivhb raise large crops of tliis grain Wiife.find a 
great saving in the use of this machine^St*iis not subject 
to get out of repair; and, with care,^Srould probably last 
a century. A number of Farmers or Planters may, very 
readily, ha]Kf one of these machines in common stock. 
The modipof it may be • seen ;^t the City of Wash- 
ington, ^ ^^ 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. *5 

COTTON (Gos9ytitum.) There are differejij, species 
of cotton-plants; but all natives of warnier climates. 4, The 
common herbaceous^ cotton, that creeps along the gt'ound, 
has yellow flowers, succeeded by. large oval pods, filled 
with ,seeds and cotton. 2. The American cotton, with 
hairy stalks, two or three feet high. 3. The Barbadoes 
t:ptt0p, with a shrubby branching stalk, four or five feet 
high. 4. The tree cotton, with a branching woody stalk, 
six or eight feet high. The flowers and pods of the three 
latter species are like those of the first. The three first 
species are annual, and the fourth perennial. 

The cotton-plant cultj.yated in the Southern States'is an- 
nually planted in April, or earlier. The ground isr prepar- 
ed, i^d the seed commited to the earth, in a manner very 
similar to that pursued in the culture of Indian corn. The^ 
young plants come up with two. yawning lobes, similar to 
the cotyledons of th6 common bean ^ and when thfey appear 
above ground, the weakest are pulled tip, and none left but 
those which are strong and vigorous. The weeds are 
eradicated from the growing plants in the- usual manner of 
hoed cropsi; and the crop is collected in October and No- 
vember. ■ ^ 

About double the number of Hands are requisite to 
gather the crop, that were necessary in raising it ; but, in 
this harvest. Children are capable of performing a consider- 
able, share of the business. The; wool is cleared of the 
seeds by the gin, and is afterwards hand-picked, in order to 
clean it thoroughly from any particles of -the pods or other 
sul?stances adhering^-to it. It is then stowed in large bags,... 
where it is well trodden down as jit is thrown in; and, in * 
order to assist in pressing it more compactly, some water is 
ev/ery no^'and then sprinkled on the outside of the bag. 

In this Country, cotton of the best quality is produced in 
the immediate vicinity of the ocean: The seaisland cotton 
is therefore the most valuable. The fertility of Ihe- soil for 
raising the crop does not seem so -essential. Dr. Mease 
says he has < seen it grow and flourish \yith equal luxu- 
riance in the black alluvial soil %f an island in the Altama- 
ha, and in the blowing sand of St. Simons.' 

As the ^ipp does not very essentially exhaust the soil, it 
Ivould^seetfi that level lands may, for a considerable length 
of time, be kept in |he culture of this plant; but where the 
lands lie rolling or uiidulated, and are at the sartie'time of 
a retentive, nature, the heavy showers, which commonly 
prevail in the southerly latitudes, are calculated'^reatly to 
injure grounds under the constant cultivatiotf ofjhisy or 
any other hoed crop^ by jBvashing away the best parts of the 
surface, atid by cuiing it iftto^^leep giill!es» tvl^ifeh are 



66 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

• f ^:. 

equally injurious to j^od cultivation, and unpleasant to the 
eye ol those unaccustontied to view sucjii lacuations of our 
mother earth, bui to behold her in her native robe ot green. 

Whether the product of cotton can be essentially aug- 
mented,, by the application of common manures, we are not 
particularly informed; though we have understood^ that 
common salt assists the growth of the crop, when applied 
to the, plants. If ^his be the case, the method of setx<^inov 
sea water into the interior, as described under Manure^ 
might probably be found advantageous to the cro^. 

in regard to the insect that is often so injurious to cotton, 
we can only say, that if it arrive at the part of the plants 
where it commits its depredations, , by climbing up the 
stalks, its ascent might probably be prevented by surround- 
ing each stalk with ^^ome repulsive ointment, or matter, as 
mentioiied under Insects; but, how well this additional 
labor would be rewardtrd, by the saving in the crop, expe- 
rience alone must determine. > 

Let the insect arrfVe at its place of dt?^tination in what- 
eyer way it may, a method of extirpating it is mentioned in 
the Edmburg Encyclopedia, which the Writer thinks might 
be pursued \o advantage: This is to prepare something 
similar.to an umbrella, the covering being merely of paper, 
which is to be set over the plants, successively,' while a 
""^match of burning sulphur is placed underneath. The coyer 
confines the fumes of the sulphur, so that the insects are 
enveloped in. it; in whif^^fi situation the 'Writer thinks they 
must perish in a very few minutes ; so that one Man, with 
these means of destrCiciion to the insects, could fumigate a 
great many plants in a day. 
* The Writer makes a ca!culation^'>hovv much ground 
could, in this way, be gone over, by one Hand, in a 4ayi 
the result of which is',' that the expense of the prob^ss 
would not be veCTj considerable. Th^ plan may be wfell 
worthy of experimfent. 

We imagine that Planters in general will see the propri- 
ety of relmquiijshing, in a great measure, the growing of 
cotton, for other pursuits of agriculture, niore profitable, 
and less calculated to exha»st*the soil. Even if cpttoh be 
not ^o great a scourger of the land as many other crops, 
still it affords no essential return of manure to the earth; 
and lands, even if not wholly exhausted, will become tired 
of bearing too much of one particular grbwth - 

There is a general disposition in altpost every part of the 
earth to require changes in the growths whie.h it bears. 
We see this exemplified even, in the forvfets. Where land 
become:^* divested of its rimbfer, by clearing or otherwise, 
and is%fterwards left untiled, it usually produces^ a new 
and different growth Iroi^ that which it formerly bore. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 6f 

- «. * 
The extensive qulture of the Guinea grass (See Grasses) 

will enable the Sobthern Planters to cover their ,j^lds with 

cattle; and where these may be readily grown, in |>rpfusion, 

there will always bf found the residence ot wca!t)i and 

plenty. ^ ., ? 

COWS. The marks of a good Cow are these : The 
''fbreliea^ broad, the eyefe" black, the horns large and clean, 
the neck loi^jg and straight, the belly large and deep, the 
thighs thick, the legs round with short joints, and the feet 
broad and thick. Red Cows are sc»id to give the best milk; 
though the black ones are said to bring the best Calves, 
whigh is, however, doubtful. But the Cow that gives milk 
the longest time, between the periods of her calving, is 
genieraliy besf for profit or for , family use ; provided, the 
quantity and quality of her milk be equal to that of others. 
Just before calving, a Cow should be well fed ; and, if she 
calve in Winter, her drink should b^ a little warmed for a 
day mid night afterwards. Ijf she cloes not clean well, after 
calving, give her a pale of warm wat^sr, with some ashes 
in it. : Those that calve pretty early will yield most milk 
iii (h^ ^^'^^pn. 

The times of milking ought to be regular, and as nearly 
equi-distant as ^pos§ible. Where thre feeding is full, it is 
found that milking three times a day, during the Summer 
season part'cularly, will increase the quantity nearly one- 
third. In that case, (he first milking ought to be by sunrise, 
the secpiid about one, and the, Utter about seven or eight 
o'clock in the evening. Omiting to milk Cows regularly, 
at Iteast twice a dayj tends very much to dry them. Some- 
times one or more teats of a Cow may be diseased; but 
.this does not affett the milk of the rest. 

CowfS-^^re^jCertainly v-ery profitable. Allowing one to give 
only stf qt^arts a day, for forty weejks in each year, and 
Uiis is not a lar^e allowance, her milk, at two cents per 
quart, will amoiant! to upwards of thirty-ihr,ee dollars; 
which is prbbably sufficient to purchase her,^nd pay for a 
year*s keeping. 

iSre further. Neat cattle/ Cream, Dairy, &c. 

CRABAPPLETREE (Pyrus Cdrondria.) The tree 
bearing this name in Europe is diiferent from that fpund in 
* this Country, Tjh^e^^ blossom of that growing heje.isvery 
fragrant; its ft^uit'^^Smail and sour. The Virginia crabapple 
is famous for the cider made from it; but we believe it 
m«st be a variety of the tree different from t^^t growing 
farther to the north, as the fruit of this has an uncommon 
degree of acidity. 



% . 



ca. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

The Virginia crab is an alternate beiir^r. An orchard 
of two hundred and forty trees of this kitid is cultivated, in 
Pennsylvania, by Mr. Wynkoofi. The trees are about 
tvvreniy yeaps old, and they afford himr, every ^ther year, 
about -<3tiie liundred and sixty barrels of cider, which, after 
being ipade, and fined, alter his superior method, he ^ sells 
for ab(Jjit. thirteen dollars a barrel, exclusive of the cask. 
Cider, made Irona the Virginia crab ha& been taken l"orJ^ 
champaine. ' v 

The tree is hardy, suited to almost all soils, uniform in its 
bearing, and the limbs are less liable to split or break off, 
when heavily laden with fruit. Probably it might be made 
a yearly bearer by being treated, at the comrifjencemerxt of 
its bearing, in the manner directed under Appletree, If 
so, it would greatly enhance its value. 

For the 'process pursued by Mr. Wynkoofi^ in maturing 
his cider, se^ Cider.' 

CREAM. Pans, or trays, for holding milk, to raise the 
most cream, oi^ght to be broad and shallow, and the n^ilk 
put in them should not.be more than three or four inches 
in depth. Tin and wood are the be^t materials for making 
these. Some line wooden trays with leadj but this is a 
^ bad practice, as lead majr sometimes b^ dissolved by the 
'acid of the milk, and then it is poisonous. Wooden trays 
ought to be well scalded, and dried in a cool place, as often 
as new milk is put into them, to prevent the wood from 
absorbing too much of the acidity of the mitki and thus 
coagulating the new milk, betore the cream has time to, 
rise; for cream will not rise, after the milk has become 
C*bagulated. 

It new milk be kept as warm as when it comes from the 
Cow, no cream will Tise on it; but, when sufficiently cool- 
ed, the cream separates from the rest and rises to the top. 
In order then to effect this, to the best advai\tage^ the ne>v 
milk should be made as pool as possible, and the cooler it 
is thus made, the more suddenly and eff'ectually the c^;ean[i 
"will rise. The Cooler the cellars, theretore, in which milk 
is kept, the belter. To set milkpans, made of tin, ip beds 
of salt, would, no doubt, be usetul, where the cellar is too 
warm ; and to set all milkvessels on a %or which is con- 
stantly covered with cold springwater, is also an excelent 
plan; and, wheii*e it can be done, ought .ne,ver to be omited. 
Most of the cream comes last from thfc Cow in milking. 
The last half-pint of milk that can be got, by milking the 
Cow dry, cjautains as niuch ci'^am as the first quart, or 
perhaps tlifee pints ; aiid, for this reason, Cows ought 
always to be milked as clean as possible. The quantity of 
cream will also be greater, if the milk of ekch Cow be 



FARMER^s ASSISTANT. , ^ 

strained into a pa^fby itself, as sbbn as possible. The 
practice of pouring^fhe milk of the Cows together^ while 
milking, and leting the whole stand till nearly cooled, is a 
very bad one, as, in tWs way, much of the cream will not 
afterwards rise. 

It is said, that ' any given quantity of milk, having the 
cream separated by the scalding process we shall describe, 
yields' a fourth more Of butter; and^ it is well known that 
this cream 'may be churned into butter in two or three 
minutes. 

The milk is kept twenty -four hours; it is then put into a 
vessel over a small fire, which shall only be sufficient to 
raise the heat of the milk, nearly to boiling, in two hours, 
not less; and when it has been this length of time heating, 
and begins to exhibit indications of being near boiling, by 
bubbles rising to the surface, it is to be taken off, and let 
stand twenty-four hours more. The smallest degree of 
boiling mars the process. v^ ^ > 

At the end of this time, the cream will be all^ on the 
surface. It is the© to be c^ivided into squares, with a 
knife, and taken off from the milk lieneath. This cream 
will keep muph longer, witliout souring, than cream raised 
in the common way; and may be, at any time, quickly 
converted into butter. It may., also be salted, and used on 
bread, or otherwise, without churning. 

It is good for coffee, but not for tea; as, when put itito 
this liquid, a part of it turns immediately into butter. In 
Londoii» this cream is considered a great dainty, and, in 
Winter, is sent iAto that city from a distance of two 
hundred miles, ' 

CtlCUMBER (Curricumia.) This is a cold fruit and 
hard of digestion; yet pleasant to the taste. They are ren- 
dered mx>re wholesome by pickling; though the taste of a 
pickled cucumber must be considered far" inferior to those 
which are fresh, whe^ properly prepared for eating. This 
is best done by slicing them, and then puting them in cold 
water for a while, which renders them ixiOre easy to digest. 

Mr. Coiufitr^ in his ' Taskf'm describing the method of 
raising cucumbers in hot'beds^ directs that after *two rough 
indented le&ves* are produced, * a pimfile that portends a 
future sprout,* on * the second ^taXk* is to be pinched off, to 
{••event its growth ;?i)fid this, he says, will make the other 
branches grow more strong, and be n>ore prolific. 

The soil for cucumbers caiinot be too rich, nor too well 
cultitated, to raise a great crdpr A spot well rfian^red with 
fish, or other flesh, Will produce a great quantity. Hogs- 
dyng is also very good for them. 
. ^V<»p also Radish^ for a good manure Cor them. 



70 * FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

Take a tub and fill it halt-fall of:^pwips, and with as 
much water; over this lay some straw'^Sd fill the tub with 
the richest earth; plant this lull of (he seeds, and guard 
the plants well while they are subject to insects, though 
they will be much less subject to them in this jvay ; spread 
some brush round the tub for the vines to run on, and in 
this wjiy a great crop may be raised. The water m ihe 
tub must be constantly replenished by a tube from the 
outside, which will keep the soil in the tii^b sufficiently 
moist. 

See Insects, for the method of keeping t^em off the 
young plants. 

CURRANT (Ribea.) There are a variety of currants, 
including those called gooseberries. {See Gooseberry.) 
The black currant, which grows , in the swvunp^ i.i Uiis 
Country, is greatly improved by cultivation, says Mr. Win- 
terbotharriy and affords a wipje equal to Poh, when it nas 
age. It is also an eXcelent rtiedicine tor a sore mouih-and 
throat. When bruised and steeped jn whiskey, or other 
spii'its, it is also excelett for coids and for ba,d coughs 
arising from pulmonic complaints, They are to be steeped 
a fortnight or more; then strain the liquor, buttle it, and 
put it away for use. The r^d a9d the white currants ..re 
most common here, and each makes good wine, though the 
white is thought to make the best. Currants are the most 
useful of air the small kinds of fruit-trees, and for' making 
wines they are \^ei^y profitable. 

After pressing out the juice for making wine, let the 
seeds be dried, and sown late in the FuJ), or eariy in the 
Spring, on fine light earth, and from the-se, new varieties 
may be had; some of which may be found very fine, and 
much superior perhaps to those in common use. Some 
may be found to ripen early, others late, which are quulmes 
particularly desirable for family-uses. 

Currants are easily propagated from cuiings, which is 
the usual method, or from byers 6r slips. 
See Layers and Slips. ' 

As spon as vegetation has commenced, take the strongest 
and straightest shoots, but not such as are suckers, and set 
the ends pretty well in the ground, in order that they may 
have sufi|icidnt moisture; and let them be watcred>.,if the 
weather be very dry, after planting. They will soon take 
root, and the next season will begin to bear. They should 
then be kept carefully pruned, and should not be suffered 
to run too high. They should^^be kept clear of suckers, as 
these draw much of that nourishment which is requisite for 
the fruit* The ground about them should be occasionally 
hoed, to keep it clear olf w^eds and i^ass. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 71 

Currants will do Yv©ry well even on light sandy soils; but, 
perhaps, the best|^il for them is a good mellow sandy- 
loam With proper 'culture, however, they will grow pretty 
wtll on jlmobt ai»y soil that is. not too hard and poor. 

Mr Forsyth gives some very^minute directions for prun« 
ing currants, and applying his composition to the wounded 
parts ; but iivthis instance, as in some others, he probably 
carries his theoHes to -extremes. Whatever mfay. be the 
case in Gt-eaibritain, where fruit is not so easily raised, it 
is believed' thsil the above general directions, if pursued, 
will ensure good crops of currants in this Country, which 
appears to be ve»y natural to their growth. 

To make Currant-mne- Take currants fully ripe, at the 
rate ot one gallon for' eei'ch gallon of water; bruise them 
fine in the water; strain "the whole through a cloth, and 
add two pounds and three quarters of good brown sugar to 
every gallon of currants and water thus mixed together^ 
stir it well, and, when the sugar has dissolved, put the 
whoie inio'a clean cask, filling it full, ahd leaving a good 
vent-hole open. When ihe fermentation is over, stop it up 
tight, and in six months it will be fit for bottling or for use. 
Like other wines, however, it improves much by age. 

Probably moksses, well clarified, might be made to jln- 
swer instead of sugar ; and, probably, honey, or a due mix- 
ture of, it, would be better than either. ' 

An acre planied with 'currants, and well-cultivated, would 
probably yield, on an average, a qjiantity of fruit sufficient 
to make a thousand gallons of wine yearly. The expense 
of making this wine does not exceed fiity cents a gallon; 
and the Wine, alter having d little a^e, is worth treble this 
money. > 

i^ A currant-garden should be set with the bushes inrows^ 
about eight feet between each, and about three feet ibc- 
tween e^h bush, with intervals ot proper width and at re- 
gular dlstanc^ for passing across the rows. Planting cur- 
rants on the south side of a wall will makfcthem ripen 
more early, and they will ripen later when planted on the 
north side. 

CUTINGS. These are twigs of trees cut off and set 
into the ground, where they will take root and grow. 
They should be taken from young thrifty trees. 

Cutings of currants, grapevines, Willow, Lombardy pop- 
lars, 8cc. are made to grow without any difficulty; those of 
quinces are not so e^<6y, and those of tne appletree are still 
less so. Let those which a)pe most difficult to grow be set 
as deep as twelve inches; thqsie less difficult six', eight, or 
ten, as the kinds may require. Let them be cut and set in 
, the Spring) as soon as vegetation has commenced ; and pef'^ 



7% FARMER'S ASSISTANT,. 

haps earlier than this is best for those which are most diffl*" 
cult to grow* "^ Let them be frequenilyj^watered, when the 
ground is dry. The twigs used for this purpose should be 
of good straight growth ; but not such gs are suckers, as is 
said by some. >. 

Appletrees raised in this way will ftot grow so large as 
those raised from the seeds^nor will they be so long-lived; 
but in this way, as in grafting, the choicest selections of 
fruit can be made. - 

Where cutings are to be kept some timcfj "before siting 
in the ground,^ let the cut ends be kept in moist earth, and 
soaked in water before they are set. 
See further, Slips and Scions. 

It has afways been said, that neither cutings, slips, or 
scions should, be taken from the sprouts of trees. Forsyte 
particularly insists on this, alleging that sprouts never be- 
come good bearers. Sprouts certainly bear no fruit, while 
they are mere thrifty upright shoots; but it is believed, that 
when they have obtained considerable size, apd shoot out 
their lateral branches, these Will become as good bearers 
as any other branches of the tree. For currants, in parti- 
cular, some Who have tried cutings olt tlie sprouts, for set- 
ing, assure us that they prefer them to the branches; as 
they grow straight and thrifty, and, when they have thrown 
but their lateral branches, bear exc^^eedingly well. 

It has. been said, that a cuting, slip, "or scion, when 
planted, or grafted, will live no longer than the parent 
stock, if that die a natural death. Mention is made, in the 
letters of EsfireiUa^ of a very famous peartree at Teignton, 
m'Greathritain^ v/hich, on account of the excelence.of it^ 
fruit for making perry ^ w^s esilled the Teignton _ Squaafi: 
that all the neighboring Farmers grafted irom this tree ; 
and, that when it was found in the last stage of decay, all 
the gMts which had been takeji ironi it were found in^the 
same condition. 

Perhaps it will be found, that cutings, slips, or s9ions, 
will die, when the parent stock dies of natural decay; but 
that the same rule will not hold in regard to suckers, as 
these appear to be somewhat of a different kind of growth, 
and more, in the nature of a youngs tree. They seem to 
grow with more health and vigor, than the lateral branches. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 73 



D. 



DAIRY. The business of the dairy requires close atten- 
tion. The milkirigs, inorrfer to be most profitable, should 
be three times a 4ay ; the first at daylight ; the second at 
ifcJbn; andj the latter at twilight. This will very considera- 
bly increase thre quantity of milk given in a day from apy 
number of Cows. ,^ 

In order to ascertain tvhich Cow's milk is the best, as 
yielding^ the most cream', let' the milk of each be put. by 
itself, and their products of butter will then determine^ the 
point. The quantity of milk afforded by each should algo 
be taken into consideration. , . ! 

See^ further, "Butter, Cheese,vsChurn, Cows,^ Cream, 

NEA«r-CATT|.E. " . ^ , ■■■V'.^ ~ . • . / / : 'a 

Dr. Anderson recommends wooden vessels, as being the 
most wholesome fop holding milk; but that, if tin pans be 
used, they should be washed, every time they are emptied, 
with warm water in which a Utile $alt has been dissolved, 
and should be kept clean by scouring; and, to prevent 
acidity in wooden vessels, they should in liite manner be 
scpured and cleansed with hot water. Leaden vessels he 
condemns, as is mentioned under Butter. 

The dairy requires two appar^rnents ; a clean cool room 
in the cellar for the milk, and a dark room above ground 
for dryiiig and keeping the cheese, pany^ Farmers, how- 
ever, confine their attention to making butter alone ; and in 
that jcase a -good, cool cellar is the essential requisite. Let 
the milk be set on'tlje ground; for it is the coolest part ol- 
the cellar Jn Summer, aiid the warmest in Winter, . *^ 

If milk be kept in tin pans, and set within earthen ones, 
of a texture so porous, that the watet^fn them Will gradually 
exude, it will impart a great degree of coolness to the 
Hiilk. The water-in the earthen pans should surround those 
holding the milk. If the outer pan were macie of stift 
leather, il would answer the same purpose. ; 

DEW. * An experiment (says Mr. Livings r on) hikfi 
beeii made to ascertain the difference between dew- 
water and rain- water, by puting an equal quantity of each 
ill different vessels, and seting thein in the sun. tb dry 
away : The result was, that ,;|be sediment or settlings of 
the dew-water were greater in quantity, blacker,,^ and rich- 
er, than those of the rain-water.* 

t 10 



U FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

Dew is, therefore, fertilizing ; ansj^tliis is the reason 
why lands will be twost benefited-,* 8y being constantly 
ploughed, when the dew is on them. 
<Sf^j|ALLOWiNG, Sec. 

^)ITCH This is either for enclosing grounds, to serve 
in 'tl^e place of other fencing, or to carry dif superfluous 
wiiter. When mdde for a fence, it ought to be four feet 
wide at the top, one, or less, at the bottom, and about two 
and a half deep ; with the earth all thrown ptit on one side, 
and banked up as high as possible. This, however, is but 
a poor fence, unless a hedge of some kind be i^lanted on it; 
or, unless it be raised higher by posts and rails, or boards ; 
or, by stakes and wickerwork ; and tliis, where cedar caii 
be had for th'f purpose, makes a gtfod durable fence. 
See Hedges. 

To drain swamps, ditches ouglft to be of size and depth 
proportionate to the extent of the swamp; or rather let 
them be proportionate to the quantity of water to be car- 
ried off. JThose round the edges of the swamp ought t6.be 
so placed, as to receive all ' the water from, the springs 
whioh commonly, run in on every side; or, if convenient, 
they should be so placed as to cut off the springs, by re- 
ceiving them into the ditch. When a very wet swariip is 
to be drained, the monthS^^f August and September are 
the best for performing tHis labor, as the ground is then 
driest;^ while, at the same time, the water will' not prove 
troublesome by its coldness. The proper proportions for 
these kinds of ditches are, to be three times as wide at the 
top as they are at the bottom, and a little more than half 
a^^ deep as they are wide. If they are not thus sloped 
they will fall in; owing to the heaving of the ground 
by, the frosts. To preivent their falling in, it is advisa- 
ble tb sow some strong-rooted grass on the sides of the 
ditches. 

See farther, BoG-meadow. 

DIVISIONS OF A FARM. If a farm be nearly^ square^ 
it may sometimes be advisable to have a wide lane through 
the middle, and lots laid off on each side ; or, if it be more 
oblong) a wide; laiie oti one side may be advisable, and the 
lots laid off to it. No certain directions can^ however; be 
given on this head, owing to the different shapes, s6ils> 8cc. 
of farms. A lane of this kind nuay often be thfe more 
eligible where it can take in some spring, or <)ther liviryg 
water; as,, in that case, every field becomes accessible to 
the water at all times, by leaving open the gate of that 
which is in present use in pasturiDg* 

# 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 75 

Lots for tillage .-sliould always ^ be square, or at least of 
equal sides; those for mowing or pasture may be irregular, 
without any inconvenience. 

DRESSING. A dressing differ^ from a manuring only 
in this, that the former is intended merely for one crop, 
while the latter is intended for several. Some dressings, 
such as gypsum, ashes, salt, &c are to be laid on the soil; 
othets again, such as composis, &c. are to b$ slightly buri- 
ed in it, and mixed with its surface. 

DRILL. A rafachine for sowing seeds, by opening one 
or noore furrows^ at proper distances from each other, of a 
depth suitable to ttie seed to be sown, and at the same time 
drJping the seeds, and covering theip, all at one opera- 
tion. It is to be drawn by one or more Horses, according 
to its size/j or it may be drawn by hand, or pushed for- 
wafd, something similar to the mamier of pushing a wheel- 
barrow, where a small pachine for drilling a row at a time 
is to be/used. 

Of this latter description may be those for drilling ip the 
seeds ot Indian corn^, beans, turnips, onions, arid' generally 
all seeds which may be cultivated in rows, or drills, to 
^advantage, ar>d which l^avre seeds of such snape as can be 
properly droped at suitable distances with this implement 
of husbandry. , . 

Where wheats or othef grain, that is usually sown in 
the broadcast, is to be drilled, the .implement for the pur- 
pose is to be of ^uch dimensions as that several rows are 
drilled in>^t once. Mr. iJw^/^er/oW makes mention of one 
used, in Newjersey, for drilhng in wheat in rows, at the 
distance of about tl>irteen inches between each, which is 
drawn by two Horses, and with which about eight acres 
ma/ be drilled in a day. 

The cost of this drill he states to be about ten dollars ; 
and he adds,' that, where the seed is drilled in with this 
machirwf, less see^ is M'equisite, and a larger crop is to be 
expected. , ^ 

It is certain, that a'^ much as oneHhird of the seed rrtay 
be saved by drilling in wheaf!^ and sotne other grains. Which 
are usually so^vn in the broadcast; but we are not so cbofi- 
dent, that an increase of crop, to any essential amount, is to 
be expected from this method of commiting wheat to the 
earth ; as We do not fiM this insisted on 'by the agVicultural 
Writers in Greatbriiauj,. where the drilling-husbandry is 
well understood. 

Still, however, the effects of drilling in wheat may be 
^pund more advantageous here, than in that Country; and, 
at all events, the mere saving of seed will amply repay the 



76 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

srhall adclitional expense iricured by th(e''Use of this machine 
for covering^wheat, barley, and some other grains. 
^ But the excelence of drills is principally^ to be found, in 
tlie facility with which seeds can be buried which are only 
proper*^ to be planted or sown in rows, or in hills; as, in 
such Cases, one Man with a drill, to be -drawn either by 
han^ or by a Horse, as the case rpay requi/e, will perform 
af much, inicommiting s^eds to the. earth, as would be done 
bj^'six, eight, or ten Men, in the same length of time, with- 
out the use of this implement^ find, at the ; same' time, the 
work done with the drill will be found much better execute 
^d, and wiih a great saving of seed. 

Drills, however, are only proper for gFounds which are 
clear of stones, and other impediments to the use of these 
machines. 

For descriptions and drawings of the different kinds, in 
use in Greatbritain, we refer the Reader to the )Encyclope- 
dias lately published fti tliAt Country, ' or to Editions of 
either of tbfm published here.' 

DROUGHT. Af a country becomes cjeared of its lim- 
ber, it beconies more liable to droughts-; and these will be 
more or less severe according to the climate. That which 
IS naturally Qool and moist, such as. that of Greatbritain and 
Ireland, will seldom, if ever, be ^fTected by too m lie h dry 
weatberjwhileHhat in, which the Summers are hoier, and 
of course the atmosphere dryer, will oftenV suffer much on 
this account In most parts ot Spain, the fields are patched 
up by the middle of Summer; but before this the crops are 
kl\ harvested. ^ In this Country, droughts are' never ^o 
severe, nor so universal j yet palatial ones are often experi- 
enced, much earlier, and long before the crops have come 
tojnaturity. This is an evil; and all the Farmer c^n do, is 
to make the best possible provision against it: 

Generally speaking, nothing is better <ialculated to ward 
off the effects of droughts, than good cultivation, by 
ploughing sufficiently deep, and effectually, and manuring 
well. Ground Ihat is Well mellowed, to a proper depth, 
will" stand a drought much better, than that which is 
ploughed shallow and left in clods ; and that which is well 
manured will retain more moisture than that which is ^or. 
Again, ground which is thus well prepared, and manured, 
shoots forth its crop so rapidly, t^^t the ground is soon 
covered and shaded from the heat of the sun ; Md, for this 
reason, reiains^^ its moisture longer. The same may be ob- 
served of mowing-lands. / 

Gypsum is also an,»tHidote to droughts; and, fortuiiate- 
Jy, ii^stiitS tfie soils best which ^aremobt affected in tiy| 
way,- '" ' • •"■ '■^-■- 



JARMER's ASSISTAOT. rr 

Another way to avoici the effects of droughts is, to culti- 
vate swamp-lands rtiore extensively, in raising suph pro- 
ductions as are most liable to receive injury in tlii^v.way. 
Such lands, whea well drained, and duly mixed with'ppQg.er 
earths, or othef manures, may. undoubtedly be tendfej^d 
excelent for ^Imost every Summer-crop which is liable ""to 
be injured iDy tbo much dry weather. Wet lands also, 
which have been hoilow.drained, will stand a drought 
jnWh better than in th:eir original v\^et state. 
^6?e Hollow DRAINS. 

In pastures, planting some kinds of trees, in different 
parts, is beneficial in preventing the effects of drought; mi 
the best for this is the locust; as it will increase the pas- 
ture, serve for shade, and. eventually yield much valuable 
timjier and fuel; 
■ See hocvsT. 

DUNG, DUNGHILLS, &c. 5<?e Manujies. 

DYING OF CLOTHS, 8cc. As the Dom^tic Manufac- 
ture of cloths, and particularly of wpolen, is important to 
the welfare and Independence bi the Farmfcrs and Planters 
of our Country, we have thought proper to devote a page 
or two of this Work, in directions for dying some of those 
colors which are seldom or never out of fashion; slich as 
the, black,, th^ grays, the blues, and the greens, of different 
shades, together with some e^y methods of producing, a 
variety of other Gplor^. - - <> 

The essential point, in colorings is a knowledge of the 
ncieaos of seting the colors so permanently, that th^y will 
nevel* fade. In cottons, this is often a matter of difficulty; 
In woolens it is less so. . The liquid, or substance used to 
set colors, is called the mordant. The proper mordant for 
blues, "and for scarlet, or red of various hues, is the solution 
o/* /in^ aiid is prepared as follows : , '- 

Take two parts of spirit of nitre, one of fuming spirit 
of salt, and in thjs liquor dissolve" one-twentieth part ojvits 
quantity of the purest tin tljat- can be had, or more if the 
liquor will dissolve more.^ The tin is to be granulated, and 
put in by degrees, as the liquor dissplves it. To use this 
mordant, dilute It in two or three pal*ts of clear ^stream- 
water, according to its strength, until'^t' has the addity of 
vinegar, oi" lemon- juice. >. 

^heanordant is to^be used in two ways. Where it gives 

no color of itself, the cloth or yam. may be first put into the 

mordant a suitable length of time, and then :put into the 

dye ; or a suitable proportion of the raordap^^ may bej wiixed 

bWith the dye : But, where the former gives a color of 

^usclf, the cloth or yarn should first be put into it, and then 



78 



FARMER'S ASSISTANTc 



into the latter. Thus, for dying cottbn black, the mordant 
corpmonly used is a boiled decoction of fustic, which of 
itself gives a yellow color ; but, after having received this, 
will receive a permanent black dye. The bark of the quer- 
citron wilf answer instead of fustic. 

A good black for woolens is only to be obtained by first 
dying, them a deep blue, fixing that color with its proper 
mordant ; and then they are to be put in the black dye, 
w'^ its mordant. 

The different hues of gray are merely mixtures of white 
lyopl with suitable proportions of wool dyed bl^ck, in the 
rtianrier just mentioned. 

Green is a mixture of blue and yellow dyes; and may be 
a lighter, green, by more of the yellow first given it, with 
its mordant, and afierward's less of the blue, with its mor«> 
dant; or, vice versa, for a deeper greep. 

The same may, be observed of ojther hues, which are 
produced by a mixture of* twp, or more, of the primitive 
colors. The deepness, or the lightness, of any particular 
primitive color, or of mixtures of either, is obtained by a 
proper appoftibnment of the dying ingredients, with their 
proper mordants ; that is, where the color is intended to be 
deep, more of the ingredients are to be used; and less, 
where it is to be light, 

Af\er premising thus much, we Will give a list of differ- 
ent colors produced by different vegetable substances, with 
the mordant proper for each, as^far as w^ have been ena- 
bled to obtain a knowledge ot the same s %. 



Vegetables. 

Indigo, 

]Woad, 

iFalse indigo (flowers) • 

plue Whortleberry (fruit) 

Pokeweed (fruit) 

"Wintergrape (fruit) 

Common hazlenut hnisks (green) 

HickorjnUt husks (^reen) v 

"Witch hazlenut husks (green) 

Sumac (bai-k) 

Oak trees (bark) , 

Maples (bark) 

Walnut-trees (bark) 

Sassafras (bark) 

Madder (roots) 

Persiranaon-tree (bark) 

Locust-tripe (bark) , * 
Poplar-tree (bark) 
Peachtree & Arsesmart (leaves) 
Stowefj'uitm;ees (bark) 



Colors 


Mordants., 


Blue, 


Solution bf tin: 


Do. 


Do. 


Do. 


Do. 


Mazarine blCie, 




Tyrean purple. 




Violet, 




Black; 


Copperias. 


Do. 


Do. 


Do. 


Do. 


Do. 


Do. 


Steel, 


Do. 


Purple, 


Do. 


Olive, 


Do. 


Red,^ 


Do. 


Do. 


Do. 


Crimson, 


Allum and salt 




of tartar. 


Yellow, 


Do. 


Do. 


Do. 


t>o. 


Do. 


Nankeen and 




Cinnamon, 


'Do, 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 79 

For dying the scarlet, three parts of water to one of so- 
lution of tin, are to be mixed together; and thei) jsuch a 
quantity of cochineal must be added, as will just give the 
scarlet hue; and, if a still f^aler red is wanted, the 'q\iantity 
of cochineal and mordant must be reduced. , . 

To give a dark and- unchangable blue color to wool (Says 
Mr. Genef, from whom we derive most of the information iti 
this article) the French Manufacturers mix one part of the 
best indigo, pjulverised, with eight parts of vitriolic acid, 
well concentrated; and leave it undisturbed for twenty-tou^ 
hours. They then add, by degrees, ninety six parts of pure 
soft water to the mixture, and stir it frequently. 

If the wool, or cloth, wheti immersed in this, becomes of 
too dark a Wu^, its color is, to be made lighter by its being; 
soaked about ^ day, or a longer pr shorter time, as may be 
found necessary, in a cold solution of twenty-four parts of 
pure soft water iand one of sea or common «alt. 

Alhim, says Mr. G may be used as a mordant for indi-. 
go; and if any woolens are immerged in a bath cotitainirig 
absolution of soda, after being dyed w'uh this blue, ' and 
fix*id with this .mordant, they will acquire a darker color. 
The same method, he says, may be siiccessfully applied to 
silk, but not to linen or cotton. 



. EARTHS. Chemists, by analysing the suhstance which 
fortns (his eatth, find it to contain Several distinct kinds oC 
firatter, which they denominate /zn7wz7zt;e earths; which 
are, however, unnecessary to be designated' here, farthei' 
than as some of them enter into the composition of soils. 
These are principally limey magnesia, silex^ and aluinine^, 
Ijp addition to these, other; substances ar^; found in soils £ 
such/ as animal and vegetable matter, in a decomposing 
state, cerisiin saline compounds, and the oxoyde of iron. 

Lime is seldom found in its purity ; but is generally 
cojmbined with other earths, and with acids. What are 
commonly called limestone, marble, chalk, and th#differ- 
ent kinds of marie, are all mixtures of lime with other 
earths, combined wi^ carbonic acid, i»nd arc ,eftch called 
carbonates of linrie. 

Gypsum, or sulphate of lime, is a mixture of lime with 
other earths, combined with sulphuric acidj and, wheis 



80 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

lime is combined with phosphoric aci>d, it is called phos- 
phate of lime. ^ ' 

Lime, in its pure state, is infusible; but is readily dis- 
solved in acids, or in six hundred and eighty times its 
weight of wajter. When either of the above-mentioned 
acidsus poured on any stone; or earth, which contains lime, 
an effervescence will take place, by which the presence of 
this earth may always be discovered. 

Limestone, gypsum, marble, Sec. are generally found 
the Uppermost of the stony incrustations of this ^tobe ; and 
appear generally to have been formed, before the dry lands 
appeared. Chemists suppose them to be principally formed 
froms hells, such as those witli which matty parts of the 
bottom of the ocean now abound, in prodigious quantities ; 
and ^he skeletons of fishes, jind other aquatics, often found 
in Jhese masses, would in some measure seem to confirm 
this opinion. '/ 

Some of the stone, commonly called limestone, is com- 
bined with a large pr^portiof^jof 7Ma^ne5ziz; Of whifch ecirth 
we shall speak presently. Sometimes, also, limestonei is 
principally combined with argilaceous, and sometimes with 
silicious, eatth J the former being known by its hardness, 
and smoothness of surface when broken, and is the least 
calculated to improve a clay soil ; the latter being distin- 
guished by b^ing more soft, and rough, when brok^ and 
is best adapted for clays. 

MarlSle is usually combined with argila(;eoUs earth, and 
chalk is formed of nearly the same ingredients ; but, per- 
haps, contains less alumine. ' 'V. 

The upland marie is generally a clay, with a certain 
proportion of lime, and, the more the better, as a manure. 
Someiitries, however, this kind of marie has a considerable 
proportion of sand ; in which case, it may be found best 
adapted for clay soils; aS, in the former case, it will be 
found most suitable for those which are sandy. The riiarle 
of bog-swamps also varies in its proportions of a fine rich 
clay, or loam, and of very fine sand; but, in all cases, 
contains more liife ; and, the^ weaker sorts, probably, more 
earth formed of vegetable rhatter. 
vi^^e further. Manures. , ' 

There are also calcareous sands, which- may be easily 
discovered by applyirig any of the acids to them, in the 
manner before directed. Sometimes, also, these sands are 
mixed with siiex. -i- ^ 

Magnesia is a white, friable, light earth, usually combin« 
cd with other substances, and sometimes with limestone. 
When this is the case, the stone, when burned, makes what 
the English Farmers call hot lime 5 and, in Greatbritain, is 



•FARMER'S ASSISTANT. ' SJ 

esteemed of much less value, as a manure; but, in this 
Country, it is said to be most valuable. ,' V ^ 

The magnesian limestone i may be known, froni v:that 
which is purely calcareous, by the slowness ot its solutioa 
in acids; as, even the softest kind o^ it, is longer in dis- 
solving than marble. Frequently it has, also, a chrystalized 
structure; and sometimes small blaqk dots may be seen 
int.ersperse(J throi^ghout the mass. ' 

^'j^kx. or the earth of flintSj is exhibited mostly In the 
form of crystaline sand. ^ 

j^lumine is the basis of clay, and serves to endue th.at 
earth with the peculiar characie/i^tic of contracting in bulk, 
when dried; and of expanding &gain, when moistened. 

'Animal matterj in a decomposing state, must be princi- 
pally the remains of the various insects, and^other animals, 
which have existed, arid perished, in thp earth, during the 
lapse of a^es. ^^ ' 

The presence of the remains of animal matter, in earths, 
is ascer.tained by applying a stronjg heat to them; undex" 
the operation of which they emit a smell simil^t .to that of 
feathers when- burning, and leave a residue which is prin- 
cipally carbonaceous matter, together.with carboriic acid, 
volatile alkali, and inflammable aeriform products. 

Vegetable mdiUQV^ in a decomposing state, is much ^more 
apparent in almost every part of the surface of the earth 5 
but most so in rich, moulds, and in new. landsj where the 
surface is usually more or less covered with it. It forms 
the upper stratum qJ5 bog-meadows, and indeed the whole 
mass, where they are not underlaid with marie. When it 
undergoes the operation of a stropg heat, the residue is 
mostly ashes. ■ 

The saline? compounds found in earths, or soils, are but 
rarelyto.be df^scovered, and are principally common salt 
(muriate of soda) epsom salt (,sulphate of m^gpesia) and 
the salts chemically called muriate, and sulphate, of potash, 
nitrate of lime, and the mild alkalicss. ^z 

Spils containing the least of any particular^ saline ingre- ^^ 
dient, that forms a part of the food ot plants, will probably ■ 
always be found most benefited by the. application of th.it 
kind of salt, as a manure. <fi,M-.^ . ^. / 

The oxyde (rust) of iron is found ii^\1^j|=jBarths,, or soils -, 
but mostly in yellow and redish clays, aiidvln sands of smu- 
lar .colors. It would seem that the colors of these earth.; 
are ^osily owing to their containing more or less of this; 
oxyde; and that, *for this reason, they are usually the least 
fertile; as the presence of iron, in any shape whatever, in 
the soil, is unfriendly to vegetation. ;^,, 

But redish-colored earths are often very proljific; parti- 
cwferly of the loamy kinds; the cause of which mav be, the 



Mi. 



8i 



FARMER'S ASSIStMt. 



presence of: mlier fertilizing matter fn the^oil, that over- 
balances the effects of the iron ; oi*| that the color is chiefly 
owing to some other cause. 

WherTearths have been made as dry as' they can be, by 
cxposciibe to the air, -they still contain a considerable quan- 
tity of water; the more clayey kinds containing about a 
fou^h of their weight ; while those which are light and 
sgjl'iy hold from a tenth to a twentieth ^art only of this 
Mid, according as the sand predominates more or less. 

It would seem that this circumstance is printiipally what 
gives vto clayey soils the advantage over those which arc 
lii^ht and sandy ; the former, holding- morjS water, are ena- 
bted to impart to the growing plants more of this necessary 
^food than the latterj^ particularly' durihg spells of dry 
weather. Thp stiff and clayey soils may therefore be said, 
on this account, if on no' other, to contain more of the food 
of plants than the light sandy ones-iv 

But clays may, nevertheless, Be. too solid ^nd compact to 
ftadmit the extension of the roots of plants in search of this 
food; andj in such case, the stores of this nutrin^ent are 
only to be unlocked by the application of sand, or some 
other substance calculated to destroy the quality of com- 
pactness and adhesion in the soil. 
See Manures. 

Something shall now be said of earths, in regard to their 
forming different soils. 

There are a variety of these ; such as the sandy, gravelly ^ 
loamy ^ clayey^ mar ley y chalky ^ mucky <^ turf ^ ^hd peat soils. 
There are also soils formed of a mixture of some of these; 
such as the sandy -loam^ gravelly •loamy sandy ^clay) gravelly' 
clay^i See. . ; 

The sandy soil is that in which sand predominates; but 
which, at the same time, contains a sulficiency of other 
earthy matter to make it more or less retentive of wioistare, 
and thus becomes endued with various degrees of fertility. 
\.A pure sand is wholly ^barren i being nothing more than a 
^bllection of y^y minute pebbles, which are usually of the 
Stone we call flint ; though sonietimes they are of calcareous 
stone, as we have before mentioned^ 

Where a sandyl^oil is underlaid, and at no great depth, 
with what is us'ualiy called a ^arrf/ian, it adds greatly to 
the retentivcness of the soil, and of course to its fertility. 
J Sandy soils are usually of a yellowish, or redish,' cast. 
Sometimes they are grayish; and frequently they are dark- 
colored. The latter are usually the most fertile : Generally, 
they are very productive; the yellowish and redish arc 
commotily the lea^t so; and the grayish usually holds a 
middle station bet\Veen the two extremes. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT/ 83^ ^ 

Sandy soils are^ commonly, most profitable'!^ the cultiva- 
tion of roots of almost every description; particularly viMti 
the soil is well manured, it it be not naturally rich. 

Wheat is not very natural to this soil; but, when in^ood 
condition, it will produce tolerably good crops of this gfaiii; 
particularly when sown on a sward of clover turned under. 
Rye is natural to this soil. , , 

The lighter kind§ of it are too little retentive of moist- 
«rd, during the heats of Summer, for good crj?ps of Indian 
eorn; though those which ^re datrker-colored are generally 
very good for this crqp. . > ; 

Soprte particuljir kinds of grass grow w^ll in this soil, 
even where it is very' light and ^ry, ^ 

See Grasses. ' *■ 

Sandy soils have this particular advantage; they are 
easily tilled ; so that, if what is saved in tillage be expend- 
ed in.additipnal m^nuriiigs, it is doubtful whether this soil, 
when skilfully m'anage€,^\\vill not be found as prpfitabre to 
the Fariner as most other lands of midling qiiality. 
^fe Improvement OF Lands, and Manures. 

Sandy lands are also much pleasanter to till, than most 
Other soils; so that, if pleasure b^ an object with the 
Farmer, he will bring that into the account, when forming; 
a proper estimate of the value of this soil.-- 

A great proportion~of the vast and populous empire of 
China is said to be more or less of sandy soil. 

The county of I^Jprfolk, in Greatbritain, which is said to 
be now^amot)g the most productive tracts, in that Country, 
was, originally, for the most part, a poor light sand. 

In this Country, sandy lands have generally been too 
little valued: They have been mostly occupied by poor 
Fartpers, who have taken no pa^ins^, in the first instance, ta 
giye them more stamina, and tti'us fit th^m for profitable 
courses of crops; but, on the contrary, what little fertility 
they possessed has usually been exhausted' in the produc- 
tion of poor crops, and thus the s^bil has at length, in many 
instances, become almost entirely barren. y^> 

The gravelly soil is that in which |mvel forms the 
largest component part. Pure gravel, like pure sand, is 
barren ; being nothing more than a"^ collection of pebbles, 
of a larger kind than those of which-^s^ti^ is composed^v A 
coarse sand, and a fVne gravel, may be considered so,gearly 
synonymous, that we will not pretend to draw the' liHe of 
cfiBtinction between them. 

Of the different kinds of stony matter which form the 

gravelly ingredient, in soils of this description, the slaty or 

schistic gravel is much the best ;. particularly where the 

slate is of a soft crumbly kind ; as such would seem to be 

v^in a gradually decomposing state, and usually contains ^ 



M 



S4 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

considerable .ipi'oportion of calcareous or other fertilizing 
matter. We hdve sfcen some very good soils, which par- 
took largely of a slaty gravel.^ 

Generally speakJug, soils which are yerf gravelly are 
hard, and they are usuaUy poor, from much the same 
causes%hich coiuribiite to the proverty of soils which are 
veryj;^sap.dy ; and the means p{) ameliorating each are ve^y 
sinnilar. but as a hard graveUy soil is much more difficult; 
tp^flEiellow than the sandy, the former is, on that accounti*;^ 
this least valuable. 

Hard gravels must be ploughed 'very deeply, in order to 
enable the gf'Qwing crops to withstandrthe droughts of Sum- 
mer. Roots which require adeep extension into the earth, 
and all those plants which aire most affected l?y drought, 
have^ but little ^hance of succeeding in a gravelly soil of 
this, description. 

It is most efF'Sctually mended Ufii^asting earths tipon it 
which are most retentive of mois^^'?: At the same time, 
it is a soil that is extremely sensible to the operation of 
gypsum; and, with the aid of that manure, will produce 
good crops of clover, which, in due season, will enable the 
soil to bcar^ crop ofrye to advantage; and in this way, or 
jiomething similar, poor gravelly soils may be made to 
yield considerable profit. 

Cut, as the soils which may be denominated gravelly are 
£ome more, and some less, so; some very hard, and dry, 
some mellower, and not so much affect;bd' by drought; we 
will not pretend to designate particularly the niost-profita- 
ble uses of soils of this kind, as much must depend on their 
particular character, and as those of the better kinds may 
often be found very good for most kinds of culture. 

The lomny soil is a close, compact, retentive earth, and 
appears to be similar to .clay; with this difference, however, 
that loam does not crack open when dried. It is also, in 
general, different in color from the most of clays; the 
poorer sorts of loam being ot ^ pUle yellow; the better 
stKt& of a brownish color; and some are often found of u 
redish hue, whifth are endued with various degrees^of ier- 
tilit^; though, generally, they are very good for almost 
every purpose of farming ; particularly when of a dry and 
itn-liQw kind. .: , , "^ 

The dai;k, or brown-colored sorts ar^ almost invariably 
good lands; but best, where they are dry and mellow. Tho 
darkness of , the color probably denotes the presence of 
much vegetable matter in them. 

Loams of every kind, Whether wet or dry, are natural to 
grass: S6me, however; vvhich incline to become mossy, 
when they have been a few, years in pasture, or mowing- 
gruuiids, require io be more frequently ploughed up;.un-* 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 85 

less the growth of 'the moss be destroyed by scarifying and 
top dressings. ,\Ve have known gypsum to answer an ex- 
celent purpose, in extirpating .the growth ot moss in a dry 
loamy soil. This manure was merely scattered ov^^ the 
mossy ground in the Spring; when the moss soon give 
way to a growth of white-clover. ' 

Loamy lands are generally too cold, and oft^o too wet, 
for bearing good crops ot Indian corn; unless the ground 
be well warmed and mellowed, by suitab^le rtiahurings, &c. 
Some of the dry, relish, and dark-colpred kinds, however, 
answer well for this grain, as well as for almost every 
other growth.* In general, loams, are a good wheat-soil, 
unless where they are too wet; and even thejr wetness 
may be remedied by hollow-draining. 

%, See ihot articles' i ' • 
a A loamy s6il wilLpay, as well as any other, for. what 
manure is given it, if ir'6e of the right kind. 

:.;^See Manures. {:■■ 

It is also much. easier prepared for crops, than that of 
which we shall^. next speak ; and, although loarn^ are very 
various iti quality, and in fertility, in general it may be said, 
that tracts of this soil will usually be found to contain rtiuch 
good farming-lands. V .. 

The. clayey soil, is the most compact and retentive of 
any, an<i, on account of its alumine, has the singular qual- 
ity of contracting when dried, and expanding ag<ain when* 
moistened, as we have before mentioned. Probably the 
presence of this primitive earth, in this soil, is principally 
what serves to distinguish it from the more adhesive and 
compact loams. , ^ ^ i,»jiiiL 

Clay is an unpleasant soil to cultivate, for any hoed crops ; JflB 
and for those wMch are cultivated, solely with the plough, ^1^ 
more skill, as well as more labor, is; requisite in preparing 
this ground for the reception ;of seed. 
See' Fallowing, &c. 

To prepare a soil of this description for bearing a crop 
requires, on an average, at least double the expense that 
is necessary for light sandy soils. Clay^' are, however, 
strong and durable soils, and, when well cultivated, produce 
largely of such crops as are most sui,table to them. These 
are, principally, wheat, where the soil^ is nut too Vet, 
barley,. oats, beans, peas, vetches, flax, Sec. beside several 
ioris of natural and artificial grasses. 

Kye is not so, natural to clay. Indian corn, and the 
various kinds of root^crops, do not flourish in this soil, 
unless they are powerfully assisted by suitable manures. 

Clay, however, by long cultivation, and frequent manur- 
Icgs, in a great measure loses its original eharactti ; th^* 



^I^IL 



16 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

adhesive quality^ so troublesome iir tillage, mostly disap- 
pears, and the*soil assumes more of the qualities of loam. 

Tile marley soil is merely a clay with a mixture of more 
or less lime. It is a strong, durable soil, and is more easily 
filed for crops than clay, as it has little or nohe of the ad- 
hesion ^ that earthy being more loose and crumbly. It is 
better filed, for those crops for which clay is not so well 
adapted; but, at the same time,^ is best for those which are 
besrsuited for clays. J ^ 

It is a kind of soil that is not-often found in any consider- 1 
able extent, as fai^ as our observations have extended. In 
point of color, it probably corresponds with those of clays ; 
and, no doubt, has^ different degrees of fertility, according 
to the quialities of the clay, and of the lime, of which it is 
composed.^ ' v 

The chalky so\\ is very rare in this Country. We never 
have seen any of it, except in small»quantities.. It abounds 
cOnsidcrablyrin England; and in some parts of that Country, 
where the surface is wholly chalk, it is, of course, entirely 
barren. Pure chalk is principally lime, saturated with car- 
bonic acid. In appearance, it does not essentially differ 
from the wVue marie, with which some bog-swamps are 
underlaid. 

The mwc^t/ soil appears to be almost entirely th» remains 
of vegetable matter. It forms the upper stratum of bog- 
meadows and other rich swamps; and many rich tracts of 
our wild arable lands have a surface, of a greater or less 
depth, of this earth. In lands of this latter description, it 
seems to decompose, and disappear, in a greater or less de- 
gree, when the ground has been tilled fifteen or twenty 
years. , 

Mucky soil is best, when mixed with « due proportion 
of other suitable earth ; and in that case it forms a fin^ rich 
soil for tillage, and is well adapted to the growth of almost 
every kind of crop. The soil of bog-meadows, though very 
rich to appearance, may, nevertheless, be greatly increased 
in Jertility, by /^having a suitable quantity of other earth 
mixed with it. ^ 
See Manures. 

Of turf soils we cannot say much, if we speak of the 
surface^ or cultivable part of the earth, further than that all 
rich swards are frequently called turf, and with some 
degree of. propriety ; as such swards, when cut up and 
dr'ied, will answer tolerably well for fuel. But that which 
is here intended to be particularly spoken of is a fossil, that 
is generally found in low grounds and boggy places; some- 
times extending as high as the surface ; but generally lying 
-underneath. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. «7 

It is sometimes confounded with peat; Ijut this woujd 
'seem to possess different qualities. Where turf^ has been 
dug up, the hole thus made will grow up again, after a 
number of years; but this is not the case with peat. ,^ 

Turf would seem to Ije a mass of vegetable matte f", in. a 
partly deconiposed state, mixed with a large proporiion of 
living roots of aquatic plant^ extending through it; and it. 
is probable the addition of Vegetable earth, vvHich is pro- 
duqed by the constant growth and dgcay of, these, that 
causes places from which turf >has,beeb^ug to fill or grow 
yp again. ' , ^ 

' In Holland, much turf of this description is taken froin 
the bottoms of 'the canals, and is tised for fuel. c/ 

, Ireland abounds m,uch in low"^ sunken :tracts, which are 
often chiefly cpmposfed of turf, or of peat; of which V^ 
shall now speak, and conclude with some observations of 
these earths which iti^jr l^e nipre or l^ss applicable to each. 
>Pea^ soils sometimfli-Wm the surface of the earth; 
sometimes again this earth is found at various depths under- 
neath, irj a more compact form. It abounds. mucK in the 
cold mountainbus tract of land which forms the^northerly 
and unsettled part of this county (Herkimer) anji its vicinity. 
The surface of the earth there is, in many places, composed 
of a mass of peat, forming a depth of from one to two, and 
sometimes, three, feet. 

The timber, where the peaty earth prevails tp sucli ex- 
tent, is mostly spruce and hemlock. The peat thus formed 
would seeni to be principally the remains of the trees 
which have sprung from the soil, and in time have become 
decomposed, to a certain extent, during the course of many 
thousand years. "'' 

Heatand moisture are the princip^, agents, both \x\ pro- 
ducing and destroying. They cause animals, and vegeta- 
bles, to expai;id and grow to maturity ; and wfien they be- 
come diseasied^ and no longer fit to sustain life, the_same 
principles^ of heat and moisture, which before gave life and 
nurtured^ thenn, suddenly decompose the^, and cause them 
to return to dust. Without heat and mowfure, there couid 
be no vegetable or animal existence, ici^he first place ; nor 
any change or decomposition of theifi,, after they had once 
been formed. 

But it requites a certain degree- of heat to entir^sly de- 
''Compos^ animal or vegetabie matter, of any kind; while, at 
the same time, the decomposition of either may be in parr, 
or entirely, prevented by the presence of other Substances, 
^vhich are calculated to preserve them from sits operation. 
Thus the Egyptians had an art of embalming anim^al bodies, 
so as to enable them to withstand the opert^tion of heat, for 
thousands of years. 



88 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

Thus, lean jihimal flesb, by being immersed in runing 
water a giveri''' time, becomes cjhanged into *a substance 
called adifiocirCi resembling spermaceti; and in this state 
would, pr^b^bly almost bid defiance to the ravages of 
timeu " vH^" 

And. something similar to this n>ay be observed of vege- 
table matter, particularly of the hard and woody kinds: 
The.morc solid parts may remain for unknown lengths oL 
time, when buried beneath the surface, in earths^ and, ifj^ 
temperatures, suitable, for preserving them; while the* 
parts, which are more easily changed, will decompose to a 
certain extent, and thus forip a mass of peaty or turfy mat- 
ter, which will serve ^o preserve the sounder wood from 
decomposition or decay. \ ,. 

Such seems to be the case in Ireland. In many of the 
bogs of that Country, trunks of trees are taken up entire, 
and sound; while all the rest haS; become converted into 
peat, or perhaps turf. -' V / . ; 

peat, when found below the surface of the earth, is a 
much more solid and compact substance, than that found on 
the surface; and when dug "p, and exposed for some time 
to the air, becomes hard, like a cinder. When put in com- 
post, in which lime is an ingrediem, it readily undergoes a 
further decomposition, and becomes converted into a sub- 
stance similar to muck, or the black dirt of bogmeadows. 

Turi, iri coniposts, will also undergo a similar change; 
though this earth will gradually decompose, or rot away, by 
mere exposure to the air. Such, too', is the case with the 
peaty earth, before mentioned, found on the surface, and 
which, on this account, might more properly be classed with 
turf, did it not differ fromthat earth', in never growing 
again, when a part of it has been cut away. Probably this 
kind of peat should only ,be identified with that which is 
found below the surface, by being long placed in a similar 
situation. v 

The fossil peat, or that which is found under the surface, 
buriis.very freeljjr^ when dried, and is superior to turf, as 
an aftifcle.of fuel.'*^ Peat of this description may also be con- 
verted into charcoa^ and the red ^ort, Mr. Elliot^ of Con- 
necticut, says, is betterr ,for this purpose than wood. The 
method of converting it to this use is similar, to that for 

wood. % '. ■ : ' . y. ■ ^ . ' 

See FuisL. - ^ 

We will now say something in regard to soils> which are 
particularly designated, as being formed of a mixture of 
some of theV principal earthy ingredients; although, in 
strictness, almost all "soils are, more or less, composed of 
mixed ingredients. 



FARMER^s ASSISTANT. £9 

The sdndyloam soil is generally composed of about equal 
tjuanlities of what is called a sandy and a loamy soil, tuixed 
together; and as each of these soils has various degrees ol 
fertility, the quality of a «andy loam may depend, for its 
fertility, upon the sand, or the loam^ of which the soil i% 
composed, and Sometimes on, both united. 

A rich «and, and a rich Ibam, when united ^n proper 
proportions, form a most excelent soil; while, at the same 
time, a poor yellow sand, united with,^ poor hard loam, 
form but an indifferent soil; thx)ugh it ''may be much ira 
improved by manuring. 

Generally speaking, sandy-loam soils arc nearly equally 
good for all kinds of products, excepting for grasses which 
require moist or wet soils. Taking all the good qualities 
of this soil into consilleraiion ; the pleasantness, and ease, 
with which it may be^^VtUed; its suiableness to such a 
variety Of crops ; its b/efek suitable to gypsum, one ot the 
cheapest of all manui'^eii^l'Jtarid its forming one of the best 
kinds of earth for roads; all these circumstances tend to 
enhance the valye of this kind ot soil, and to render it one 
of the most valuable which generally falls to the lot? of the 
Farmer. 

Of the gravelly-ham there are also varieties of soil, iij 
point of fertility ; some forming very fine soils,vand some 
.but indifferent; the soil, in this case, forming its character 
''mostly from the quality of the loam ; though often from 
the kind <sf gravel \Vith whic|i, the loam is mixed. A due 
proportion of schistic, or slaty gravel, mixed with loam 
of a good quality, rnust naturally form a very fine soil ; 
while, on the contrary, coarse gravel; especially of the Hint 
kind, when mixed with a poor loam, must fornri a soil of no 
great value for cultivation. Poor, dry» gravelly- loams arci 
however, greatly assisted by the use of gypsum. 

A sandy c/fliy.. is a kind of soil that does riot often pl*^vail, 
to any great extent. A good clay, with a due proportion 
of good sand mixed with it, must- riatui ally form a good soil 
for most purposes: Not so good, howeverj^'or Indian Corni 
and for m6st kinds of roots, as a good santiy-loam. ^o 

A,^^gravetly-clay is also but seldom found, and is com- 
monly of but poor quality; as a rich' day has seldom or 
never any gravel in it. 

The degree of fertility which any soil may possess, is not 
alwaySj to be estimated by its general appearance. Much 
diepeijd's on the ingredients of wluch ihe soil is composed. 

alt". Bavyy oi Greaibritain, makes mention ol a very fer- 
tile soil, for grain, at Ormiston, in thai Country, which 
contained, in one hundred parts, eleven of mild calcareous 
earth, twenty-five of silicious sand, and fpr(y-five of finely- 
divided clay. It lost nine parts in d'icomposed animal and 



90 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

-I* 
vegetable matter, and f(Air in water, and afforded indications 
ol a small quantity of phosphate of lime. 

He attributes its extreme fertility to the presence of the 
phosphate, as this is found in,wheat,ioats, arid barley, and is, 
probably^art of their food. 

The^oil of the lowlands^ of SoiTnersetshire, which is 
famous for producing wheatj^^hd beans, without requiring 
any manure, he found to consist one-ninth of sand, chiefly 
* silicious, and eight; ninths of- calcareous marie, tinged with 
irori, jand about five parts in the hundred of vegetable 
inatter. \ i- 

This soil contained &p phosphate, or sulphate, of limej 

and he attributes its^ fertility principally to its power of 

^ attracting vegetable nourishment troip water, and from the 

T^ atniosphere. ''^ ; 

^Nl ^ Sulj^haie of lime (g^ypsum) has fittle or po effect, a's a 

manure^, on lands in Greatbritain^' vllere, it operates pow- 

. erfully on much pf our^ lands, ^hh soil, then, which h 

found so productive in that Country, might not be found 

equally so in this. 

^ Mr. 7'illet<, in some experiments made on soils near 
Paris, found that one composed of three-eighths of clay, two, 
of river sand, and three of the parings of limestone, was 
very proper for wheat. 

By analysing the most fertile soils, in different parts of 
the Country, and comparing the results with those whicb^ 
are poor, in the same neigh^rhdbds, the deficiencies of the 
latter might be readily ascj^ttained, so as to be enabled to 
point but what additions of earths, or other substances, are 
requisite for the most permanently bettering the condition 
of the poorer lands. 

Were the researches of Chemists directed to this branch 
of the science, it is believed that very important benefits to 
the Conimunily might eventually be the: result. But this 
seems to be properly a national, and not %n' individual con- 
cern. Were thd- Chemist Jo make the most important dis- 
coveries, in hi^:researches in this branch of the science, 
the result, witiv whatever; expense attended, eould be of 
little benefit to hiniself, further than gratifying his lo^e of 
fame ; while, ak the^s^mfe time, the farming interest tt^^ht 
derive Immense benefit from his labors, 

Oovernnflents might, therefore, be acting more wisely 
than is generally imagined, by establishing National Fx^rms, 
and supporting the expenses of chemical researches;in this 
particular, as well as every other that may t^nd to th^ -ad- 
vancement of agriculture. The expense of institutions of 
this kind would be buttrifling, compared with the national 
benefits which would -probably be derived from them. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 9i 

We shall close^ our observations' on this recondite sub- 
ject, with observing^ that earths, or soils, may be p#ductive 
cf very different degrees of fertility, according as ihey may 
be found in different , situations, as well as in ., different 
climates. , ; * 

A stiff clay, 5 for instance, in a very cool moist climate, 
might be found unfi' for crops^bf grain; butj let tlie same 
clay have an understratum of sand, at the depth of about 
ten or twelve inches, and its character forsfertiiicy would be 
much altered foi* the- better. At the s^me t4rtie, a, similar 
clay, when placed under the equator, would probably not 
be essentially benefited by an unde.rstr^tum of sand. 

A light sandy soil, In the . climate first mentioned, may 
easily be rendered productive; while the same earth, when 
long laid bare to a burnii)g sun, may become a frightful 
barren waste, where the sand is blown about by tb& winds, 
Yetj^in such climate, if t^ljie ^Janie earth were tmderlaid uitU 
clay, at a proper depth, -'thW soil might be found tolerably 
productive. 

ELM (Ulmus.) A beautiful trfee to plant near houses, 
and elsewhere. It grows pretty rapidly, and is very long- 
Hved. There ai^i^ three varieties, the^white, the yellow, 
and the red elm. • The two latter are the best ti|ober tor 
^y kind of use, and the latter in particular is very'^ durable. 

ENCLOSURES. Througbdut the most of France, and 
some other parts of Europe; the arable and mowing-lginds 
are not fenced, but lie^ in common; while the lands on 
which catde are usually kept are enclosed. 

This tpethod of husbandry has some advantages ; and it 
has its" disadvantages. Much is thereby saved in the ex- 
pense Of making enclosures; but when cattle are to be fed 
on uninclosed groutfds, a^ must somelin^. be the cascj^^lljey 
must be watched, to prevent t(ieir straying away, or geting 
into misfchief. This, says Mr? Livin^ston^ is generally done 
by the Women t They may be seen at kll times, during 
Ihfe season of pasture, siting in t^e fields employed iri' spin- 
ing, while the keeping of the cattle within their proper 
limits'does not require their imnftediate attemidn. 

It may be difficult to determine, whether this method of 
farming may not, on the whole, be as good as any, in a 
highly-cultivated and thick^etlled country. Be this as it 
may^ those couHtries which have adopted this method will 
hardly ever be found to change, owing as weUi^o the in- 
convenience of producing, throughout a whole country, |o 
radical an alteration, as to the difficulty of oyercpmiiig pre- 
judices, ..which are almost inseparable from an ancient and 
hereditary custom. 



92 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 



EXP!&RIMENTS. There is no way of making improve- 
imentii irj ffc»rmi»ig, but by expertmcnts. 11 the Farmer is 
inlormcckpf, or has conceived, a clifTerent and better method 
of culture, or ijnanagment, in ^ny branch of his farming, he 
13 to test the goodness of that method by experiments; and, 
it these prove sucfcessful, he^ttiay cotigraiulate himself, on 
havir^ performed an cxt which is serviceable to his Coiintry 
an4 hon^sr^ble to feimsclf. ' 

Perbiips it Would be well, if some institution were devis- 
ed, and supported at the expense of the ^tate, which should 
be so organized as would tend iBost efTectUally to produce 
a due degree of emulatipn among Farmers, by rewards and 
honorary distinctions confered en those who, by their suc- 
cessful experimental efforts ancl improvements, should ren- 
der themselves duly entitled tq^^iem. It might also be 
advisable to have two or three ea^fferimehtal farms, in dif- 
ferent parts oi the Stajte, under the direction of Suitable 
Superintendents, who should have the profits of the farnrs 
to themselves, and who should be excited to a degree of 
emulation, by a reward given yearly to that Superintendent 
v/hich should be found ^ the best entitled by bis superior 
culture, and by the success of his experiments, when duly 
authenticated, and published yearly for the benefit of the 
Community. Something like these might cost considerable 
at first; but might eventually be made the means of greatly 
enriching the State, by imp^rbving its agriculture. 



FALLOWING of, LAND. Summer-fallowing has a 
twofold use; 'to meliorat^e all the harder and stiffer kinds 
of soils; cleanse those of every kind, of the seeds, and 
roots, of weeds. \:, 

Mr.^ Tail, and some other British agricultural Wi*iters, 
have contended, that Summer fallowing should never con- 
stitute a part of a good system of husbandry; that the 
necessity of fallowirrg may be obviated, either by the 
adoption of the system of new husbandry advocated by Mr. 
Tull fSee, New husbandry^ or by a judicious rotation of 
crops : Arid the rotation contended for," as the most proper, 
is the tillage of leguminous, and of culmiferous, .crops 
alternately; or, in other words, that a crop, which requires 
only die use of the plough, should be followed, or preced- 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. &3 

ed^ by one Avhere the use of ^olh the plough and the hoe 
is necessary. The hoed cropsj in this case, are relied 
on as being sufficient for the purpose of eradkaling the 
seeds, and roots, of weeds. 

The Writer, however, %f the article Agriculture, in 
the late edition of the Edlhburg Enajclofiedia, von tends, in 
p^rt, for a^' different practice. He admits that lij^ht dry 
soils, such, for instance, as constitute the county of Norlo|f, 
in Greatbritain^ may be successfully cultivated without the 
intervention of a Summer fallow ; but hie insists that this part 
of husbaudry cannot be well dispensed with, in all the stiff 
andP cold soils which abound in t^at island ; that in these an 
effectual Summer- fallbwing;^ls essentially requisite, as often 
as once in'every four, six,' or eight years, according to the 
nature of the soil • hot ohly for the purpose of elfean^ing it 
of the roots, and seeds, of weeds ; but also to counteract the 
stifToess and sourness/Which such soils acquire, when yearly 
tilled with crops. 0i|' 

, It is believed that' this Writer has Uhe most correct 
notion of the culture m^st suitable to his Country : But it 
should b,e remembered, that the climate of Greatbriiain is' 
essentially different from t^rat of every "part of this Country; 
oui" Summers being much warmer, and our atmosphere 
much drier. Nor do the cold and stiff soils, which com- 
pQse ^hree-fourths of that Island, abound much ift the 
United'States; though most in its more, northerly parts. 

We have more of the light, and of the warm dry, soils. 
Still, however, though our soils and our climates differ es- 
sentially from those of the Country in question, ir must, 
nevertheless, be admited, that our hard^; and our heavy, 
soils, stiff particularly^ are much improved By an effectual 
Summer fallowing ; that those ^of the two latter descriptions 
Will probably, at certain intervals, require this mode uf cul- 
ture, for pretty much the same reasons that it is found neces- 
sary there; and that even our best arable soils will, at tinv-^s, 
require it, for the purpose of cleansing them, until such time 
^as we learn to destroy the growth of weeds, among the 
hoed crops, by a more effectual cultivation. 

T3ut, admiting that in our lands, of the latter descrip^on^ 
ftiore pains were taken, with the^ hoe, and otherwiie^' to 
eradicate the growtli of weeds, and to prevent any from 
going to seed; it is contended, that, tvith a suitable rotation 
of crops, Summer-fal|bwing such lands would^'nei|cr be 
found necessary, for any profitable purpose. 

There is- no doubt that good arable soils will be consider- 
ably fertilized by this mode of culture, where it is efftctu- 
ally performed, by repeated ploughings, and harrowings: 
But, taking into account a year's re,nt of the ground, which 
is. thus lost, it is too expensive for the mere purpose of 



94, FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

enrichinj^ lands. It can only^be profitable when it answers 
the double purpose of sweetening and fertilizing the soil, 
and, at the same time, riding it of its liability tQ trouble- 
some growths of weeds. 

At the same time, it may b6* truly said, t*^?it,^ for this 
latter purpose, much of the lands pf this Country require an 
effectual "Summer fallowing : IJ^ihg been but imperfectl|f 
cqltivateid,' in general', they are usually to be found much 
infest^d'with the seeds of the common bienniel weeds ; .tboi 
growth of which, among the growing crops, ig noi only, in- 
jurious to thenf) ; but also tends very considerably to exhaust 
the soil. Weeds growii>g among any crop, must lessen "its 
product, -in the proportion which the weight of the growing 
weeds bcrars to the weight of the growing crop. 

What we caH Si^mmer-fallowing, in this Country, hardly 
deserves the naiiie : It Is very dlft^erent from that performed 
by the best English Farmers. They break up the ground 
early in the Spring; and they plough from five. to ten tinx^s, 
as the state of the ground may require; and the. ground is 
ivell harrowed Tbetweeri each ploughing: In short, ihey 
plough and ha^rrow, at proper intervals, till no «turiher 
growths of wi^eds start from the^sojl. 

Thus, suppose the ground is turned over by, the middle 
of April; by the middle of May a^ growth of weeds will 
have sprung up from the seeds of weeds in the soil* which, 
by the ploughing, will h^ve been brought sufficiently near 
the siirface to vegetate : These are to be destroyed by an 
effectual harrowing. This operation brings other seeds 
near the surface, which produce a fresh crop of weeds; 
Plough these under, and this raises other seeds, which then 
vegetate and grow.' Destroy these with the harrow, as be- 
fore, and this again raises the Seeds for another crop; which 
are agairi ploughed under: And thus the work proceeds, 
at proper intervals, until all- the seeds pf Weeds in the soil 
have sucbessively vegetated, and been de^tJ^oyed. ' 

By this culture, most kinds of soils are very considerably 
impf&ved; though -all not equally so; and they are put in 
the best conduion for growing of crops. It tends greatly to 
destroy the adhesion of clays foi^ several successive crops, 
as is asserted by the Wl'iter last mentioned; it sweetens 
those soils Which are sotir^ and**1t warms those which are 
cold. 

The, soils which are least enriched, by this mode of cuf; 
ture, are those which are naturally very rich and piieHow, 
and poor weak sands. The fprmer gaifis nothing in fertili- 
ty, for pretty much Che same reason that a heap of well- 
loted and fermented compost \vouId gain nothing, but 
rather lose, by being too frequently stired up) »nd every 
part exposed to the^ sun, winds', and rains. 



FARMER^s ASSISTANT. 95 

It would seem that aH massies, that are saturated with 
fertniiing matter, loose by frequent siiVing \iff^ and ex- 
posure to the atmosp^fere; while hungry eyitWs, sand ex- 
cepted, gain more or less »by the same process. Probably 
sand, by being too much mellowed, becomes less capable of 
retiining moCSture -At ulil events, give this earth a good 
mixture of cla'f , and it willt^hen receive Additional fertility^ 
by a' fii|lt)wmg^ process, ' '" > 

'For the purpose of clearing the falloyir qf^he ro^ts 6f lany 
Unsfeds, or grass, which may infest it, ,Ahe AVriter last men- 
tioned dii^'ects that, after the groui*.^ ^ias been well mellow- 
cd~, as before directed, a roller should pass over, it; and 
then the harrow will more readily drag the Topts tp the 
surface, where they will die, if the ground be sufficiently 
^ry- ^ [ . ": ^, " '\ ^■ 

The process snould,be repeated, until the soil is cleansed 
of Yfiem. The teeth of the harrow should be sharp, for the 
purpose, and they should be turned considerably forward, at 
the lower en8^. Harrow teeth should always have this 
S^hape, when Used in smooth gj'ounds. 

The roll^ is also of essential use, for breaking the 
baked clods in fallow lands of a clay ^pil The ground is to 
be harrowed till the clods are all brought on the surface; 
and then, by passing the roller over them, when they are 
neidler too wet, nor too dry, they v/ill piilverise very.readi- 
wly. The rhost favorable time for this is, after the clods l>ave 
been ohi:e fully dried, and then merejy wet thro Qgh agaia 
with a gentle rain; then, when they ai'e partly dried again^ 
they will be easily qrCimbled. ,- 

On the whole, it nxay be laid down ^s a general rule, 
that Summfer-fallowings are not necessary iii this Country 
on any smooth, leyel, and dry soilf "where a suitable rotation 
of croping can be properly pursued, unless the soil be unfit 
for hoed crops ; as a proper intermixture of these, if the 
ploughings and ho€ings.be,done^.eirectuaUy, will sufficiently 
extirpate the growths of wiseds in the soil. 1^ 

But, where the land is too stiff and clayey, for the growth 
of such hoc'd crops as are suitable to^.be raised in this 
Country, there occasional Summer fallowiug^^ may;, be found 
requisite ; though they need^nbt be pear so^^^equent, as is 
common amongst our Farmt^rs, *^ ■ . 

The objections to Sujnmer^fallowing are, the additional 
expense, if performed as before directed, and the Ib^s of a 
yearns' croping of the land: The, bent^fits to be derived 
from it, in general, are the ad'ctitional fertility which the 
soil thus derfvfcs, and its Bein^ freed of- a superabundant 
growth of weeds. r^ 

When, therefore, each of tlvese benefits njay be expected 
to accrue, in an ordinary degree, tbey wi(l usually warrant 



06 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

- 'f 
the expense ; but, generally speaking, not otherwise ; liiilc^s 
the cleansinff of the soil becomes highly requisite, or unlesis 
it be so stiff, or sour, that nothing short of this jirocess will 
sufficiency mellow or sweeten it. 

Sometimes a process, similar to a complete Summer- 
fallowing, may be found essentially requisite for old rnea- 
dovvs, pt rough bottom, and .clayey soil, and where tlie 
grassfs" tiave failed; not only for giving such lands a 
smooth furfacte.'; but also for greatly increasing, and im- 
jproving, their products ; and sometimes it maybe fotind 
requisite to commence with aipfevious Winter-fallowing, 
in jrder completely to mellow the soil, tor being, in due 
time^^sd wed with grass-seeds, the ensuing season. 

, A cbmplete Summer-fallowing is also the best prepara- 
tive for a crop of flax. 
'* See that article. 

Much of the lands of thisvCountuy undergo what riiay be 
called a Summer-fallowing, in part; when, intended to be 
sown withv Winter-wheat, or rye; that is, the sward is 
usually tufned over in June; and then two^ ploughings 
more, an.4 perhaps three harrowihgs, are givep^llie groind, 
before the sowing is completed. 

Formerly, no grass-sefidsl were spwn with the crop; but, 
during the foUoyying years, in which the land was strffered 
to rest', the supply of pasture it afforded was merely its^. 
natural growth, which was usually of small account. The ^ 
crops- of grain thus raised were generajiy proportionate to 
this poorness of culture: After deducting from the crops a 
very moderate rent for the land, the remainder, generally, 
did not pay the Farmer for his labor in raising them. 

Fortunately, however,^ tjje use of gypsum has greatly en- 
coul^aged the use of redrclover j and the difference .which 
this grass, with the aid of that manure, has ejected in tH'e 
quantity of the grain thus, raised, has probably served to 
convince the mOre enterprising Farmer, that formerly' this 
part, at leas', qf^jbis husbandry was very contemptible. , 

Now he finds the average of these crops to be, perhaps, 
twenty bushels an^cre: Formerly they were about half that 
qucintity. Now, the c/^-ar iirojits in the crop, by the acre,, 
are, pethaps, from s^^x to eight bushels of wheat : Formerly 
they were nothing. The siunied growths of grjiss, 'wiiU 
which his fields were formerly cloihed, ^id not lisually 
affoid^asturage sufficient to pay ^a very light rent of thci 
ground ; While at present the iv^o Sumraer*s growths of 
clover, ^Ite'' deductfing the experises ot seceding, gypsum, 
&c. will "tTord him a.^ least as much clear profit, as he 
derives from his crops of grain; and, in the mean lime, his 
lands are gra4u;aUy increasing iiji. fertility. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 97 

By this culture, too, if his lands are smooth, and tolera- 
bly mellow, he may obtain his crops of grain with no fur- 
ther ploughing, than the mere turning of the sward under. 
At all events, if they are too hard, or too rough, for this, 
he may, nevertheless, get them into better order for sowing, 
with the same labor he formerly bestowed on them. 

And, as a sward of natural grasses usually requires much 
longer time to rot, than a sward of clover, he need not 
break up the latter beiore the first of August ; by which 
means he reaps nearly all the benefit which the second 
season will afford of this grass. 

In this way, a season is not lost by fallowing ; and, on the 
whole, it is pretty profitable and good culture for much of 
the rough arable lands of this Coiintry, which have not been 
fited by Nature, or by art, for the finest cultivation. . 

But the English Farmers say their lands will eventuall^^ 
become iired of bearing^^Iover, or wheat, too constantly. 
Perhaps tlie same win-?j>e the case here. If so, it will 
indicate the necessity of fiting such lands, if practicable, 
for a more perfect culture, by judicious rotations of crops; 
or, at least, of appropriating them to the growing of other 
grasses, and grain. 

But, as there is nothing like Summer-fallowing, properly 
speaking, in thus raising alternate crops of clover and 
wheat, or rye, that process v/ouid probably be found neces- 
sary, at the end of every ten or twelve years, to cleanse the 
soil of its^ increasing growths of weeds. Particular care 
would also be requisite, to keep out all grasses from the 
soil, but the clover; and this would be most easily and 
effectually donej by repeated harrowings before, and after, 
sowing the crop of Winter- grain. 

What is called Summer-fallowing in this Country is often 
thought necessary, by most of our Farmers, for the purpose 
of roting a stiff sward; bijl this can be effected equiiily well 
by a Winter-fallowing, and without any loss by the ground 
being unproductive during a season. Thus, i| a stiff sward 
be turned under by the first of November, it^^ill be fbund 
sufSciently roted, for most cr^ps, the ensuing Spring; and, 
with proper managment, the Spring .crop may^.be advanta- 
geously followed by a Winter-crop, or by anotnier Spring 
crop, as may be found most suitable to the soil. 

Winter-fallowing ought to be more attended to in this 
Country; and, in most cases, it should be the substkute of 
such Summer- fallowings as oi^r lands usually receive. All 
Spring-crops should be preceded by this process, unless 
preceded by hoed crops; and even where a hoed crop is 
cultivated on a clayey, or a wet soil, the ground should be 
thrown up into high narrov^ ridges in the Fall, in order to 
be more easily and eftcctually mellowed the next Spring. 



9» FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

Indeed, in all cases, where soils of the descriptions last 
mentioned are intended for Spring- crops, they should be 
thrown up into high narrow ridges in the Fall. By this 
mean the Winter-frosts will more readily crumble and mel- 
low the soil, and thus fertilize it; and by its lying more dry, 
when in ridges, it is the more readily brought into a proper 
tilth, and a due state of fermentation, the next Spring: 
And these are points of the utmost importance in such 
soils ; as the finer the tilth, and the greater the fermenta- 
tion to which they are brought, they will be rendered so 
much the more fertile for succeeding crops. 

See Freezing, where a case of Trench-ploughing is 
mentioned which serves fully to illustrate the truth of this 
remark. 

In light sandy grounds, a Winter-fallowing is not so 
^essentially requisite, for some kinds of Spring-crops; 
neither does this process tend to fertilize such soils: But 
in all such as are harder, or -njore or less gravelly, a 
Winter-fallowing of s>vard-ground should, generally, pre- 
cede a Spring- crop, for the better preparing of the ground; 
and all such soils as are wet, sour, cold, or clayey, should 
undergo this process, as well as that of ridging, for the 
double purpose of better filing the ground for Spring- 
use^^and of meliorating the condition of the soil. 

After having thus stated the principal uses and benefits 
to be derived from fallowing of land, it remains to say 
something, in regard to the difFerertce of climate, between 
this Country and Greatbritain, in order that the Reader 
may, with more accuracy, determine how far Summer- 
fallowings, here, are necessary, for the soils before men- 
tioned, for the reasons that they are found rfeqiiisite in that 
Country. 

Vegetation begins earlier, and ends later, in Greatbritain 
than it does in any part of this State ; but, owing to the 
growing season there being mucli; cooler than with us, the 
progress of vegetation is feeble and languid; and the cir- 
cumstance ofltheir crops of grain, and grass, never growing 
to so great a height, as with us, shows that the whole mass 
of the vegetation, of a season, is less in that Country than 
with us. Wheat-harvest is from four to six weeks earlier 
t;^ here, than it is there. ' 

It remains, then, to be inquired, whether our lands could 
not be, in a very considerable degree, cleansed of the seeds 
of weeds, by a mode of culture which would effect little or 
nothing in that Country. 

Suppose that the stubble of our wheat, rye, barley, or 

oat-crops were turned under, as soon as the ground was 

^ cleared of those crops ; could there be any doubt that by 

three ploughings, and three harrowings, at proper intervals, 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 9^ 

the ground would receive at least one-third of the benefit, 
in regard to destroying the seeds of weeds, and sweetening 
and fertilizing the soil, that it would receive by a complete 
process of Summer-fallowing ? 

Yet little or nothing could be effected, in the same way, 
in Greatbrjjain; for, before the same culture could be 
attempted there, the season ijrpuld be too far advanced. 

It may then, with truth, be said, that Summer-fallowings 
may more readily be dispensed with in this Country, than 
in that, by more frequently giving the ground a partial 
sweetening, and cleansing, in the manner last mentioned : 
But, at the same time, it will readily be seen, that nothing 
short of a complete Suihi|fier- fallowing will, at any time, 
effect the complete cleartsing and melioration of the soil. 
See further, Ploughing. 

FALSE QUARTE#:| A rift or chink in the hoof of a 
Horse from top to bottom. The inner side of the hoof, 
being the thinest, is most liable to it. When it becomes 
troublesome to a Horse, Gibson directs that the cleft be 
pared out to the quick; then annoint the hoof with a mix- 
ture of tar, honey, and suet, melted together, and lay a 
pledget, dipt in the same, along in the cleft. Then bind up 
the hoof as tight as possible, by winding rope-yarn closely 
round it from top to bottom. The shoe should previously 
be taken off. The wound should be opened and drest 
every third or fourth day ; and, to prevent any inconve- 
niency from this, let the cleft be held together at the bottom 
by a thin plate fastened op for the purpose, pi-^ i^S\ 

It is, however, very difficult, and often impossible, says 
this Author, to effect a cure in an old or a diseased Horse. 

FARCY. A disease m Horses similar to the scurvy 
among Men, and is caused^ by confining a Horse too long 
to dry meal. It is known by small tumors appearing on 
the head and other parts of the body. Turning the Horse 
to fresh pasture will effect a cure, in the first stages of the 
disorder; but wherfe it has become more inveterate, by 
long standing, Gibson directs, that the Horse be bled, mod- 
erately purged, and then, that doses of antimony be giveti 
him. „ '';'■ 

FENCES. Poor fences are pjroductive of incialculable 
mischief to the Farmer. By these his crops are constantly 
liable to be destroyed, and his cattle learn to become habit- 
ually unruly. One unruly creature will learn others to be so; 
and thus the Farmer, with his poor fences, finds his cattle, 
instead of being profitable, to become proddctive of unceas- 
ing losses, and, what follows of course, of unceasing vexation. 



100 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. - 

When the Farmer is conscious, that he cannot even sleep 
in peace, on account of the danger oi his catlle destroying 
the fruits of his labors, he cannot be said to enjoy that 
tranquility which ought to be the reward of the sweat of 
his brow. Rather, therefore, let him make his fences 
what might be generally deemed more than sufficiently 
high and strong, than too low^nd weak. This, if it be an 
error, is erring on the safe side; on the side which secures 
the fruits of his labors, and promotes his tranquility and 
happiness. 

Log-fences are often made on new-cleared lands, where 
rail-timber docs not sufficiently abound, and these the 
Farmer will of course muke of the most durable logs which 
his new-cleared land affords. Whiie-pine log-fences are 
very good, and will last twenty years without any essential 
repairing. Clear white- pine timber inay, however, be split 
into rails, which are very durables All kinds of wood will 
last much longer in rails, when the bark is peeled off. 

What are called worm fences are made with most ease, 
but require more timber than some other kinds. If, there- 
fore, timber be scarce, post-and rail fences, set in a bank, 
made of the earth of two small ditches thrown up together, 
ought to be prefered, wiiere good durable posts can be had. 
If the posts are too small to have holes made through them, 
the rails may be fiated at the ends and fastened to the posts 
with spikes, or with wooden pins well secured. 

Post-and-rail fences, without these ditches on each side, 
arc very good where the soil is dry, and the same may be 
observed of board fences; but, where the soil is wet,- the 
posts will be thrown out by the frosts. In all cases, the 
posts ought to be set at least two feet in the ground. 
Red-cedar is best for posts. Locust, chesnut, butternut, 
and black-walnut are also good. Good oak will also last 
pretty well. Burning the ends of th^ posts which ^o into 
the ground, so as to make them black, will make them last 
longer. 

A method of making a fence from two shallow ditches, 
by laying up the contents of each in a bank between them, 
is in successful operation in Dutchess county, in this State, 
and is well adapted for lands lying moderately level, and 
ftee from stones. It is made to answer without any addi- 
tion to the top of the bank; but, we believe, the addition we 
shall describe would generally be found most advisable. 

We propose, for instance, to raise the bank three and a 
quarter ftet high from the bottoms of the ditches; and, for 
tills purpose, the ground is to be marked out as follows. A 
strip, say 18 inches wide, is first to be marked witli a line, 
to be Icit as a foundation on which'the bank is to be raised. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. loi 

Then a strip, say, four and a half feet wide, is to be, in like 
manner, marked off on one side of this ; and another,, four 
and three-quarters wide, marked off on the other side. 

from these two latter strips the sward, to the depth df, 
say, three inches, ii to be pared off, and laid away on each 
side, to bp used in the way we shall presently mention. 
Then the earth under the pared ground i^ to be dug out, 
in the sloping direction exhibited below, and laid up on the 
strip first mentioned, so as to form a bank eighteen inches 
high from the /surface of the earth. Then the sward, 
pared off as just mentioned, is to be laid with the grass-side 
upwards, on each side ot the bank, from the bottoms of the 
ditches to the top, which completes the bank. 

We will now exhibit an end view of the bank as thus 
made, and covered with the sward, and of the slopes of the 
two ditches, which we imagine will afford an adequate idea 
of the construction of tfie whole.- 






A B The furface of the earth. 
C D The ditch on each side of the bank. 
E' The bank. " ' 

F The sward faid on one side' of the bank, taken from 
the surface of the ditch C, which is four fegrand 
three-fourths wide. This sward laps, at the to^flJie 
bank, over that on the other side. 
G The sward laid on the other side, t^ken from the 
surface of the ditch D, which is four and a half feet 
wide. 
But, in order to make this bank what we would call a 
sufficient fence; it 'will b^ necessary to make an addition 
to it, by driving stakes into the top of the bank, say, six 
feet apart; and to these nair one length of boards, say, 
fourteen inches wide, and at the height of about foui- inches 
from the top of the bank. 

This gives the fence the height of about four feet nine 
inches from the bottoms of the ditches; which height, con- 
sidering the particular advantage of this kind of fence, of 
which we shall next speak, will, as we imagine, be found 
sufficient to turn the most unruly cattle. 

The advantage of the fence consists in this : The eleva- 
tion of the bank, with its addition, is too great for cattle to 




102 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

attempt to climb up, and pass over in that way ; and it will 
be found impracticable to pass it by a leap; because, in 
coming sufficiently near it, for that purpose, the forefeet of 
the beast must be so much below the level of its hindfeet, 
that it becomes unable to raise itself to spring to any 
advantage. |^ 

A hedge may in the mean titne be growing on the top 
of this bank ; and, when it has become sufficiently matured, 
the addition of the stakes and boards may be taken awayi 
to be used in some other place. » 

For hedge-fences, see Hedges. For making stone-walls, 
see Stones. 

FERMENTATION. Ground is in a complete state of 
fermentation, when the adhesion of 'its particles is destroy- 
ed ; when it is in a soft pulfy state, so that when pressed 
down it will expand again* It is to be brought to this state 
by frequent ploughings, or by ploughings and manurings 
together. 

When ground is in the highest fermentation, it is then in 
the best state for growing of plants; and the more effectu- 
ally the fermentation is kept up, during the time in which 
the plants are growing, the greater will be their growth. 

Fronts have great effect in preparing for a state of fer- 
menta^tion in stiff soils, when thrown up during Winter, in 
such manner as to lie dry. 
See Freezing. 

Moderate rains succeeded by warm sunshine, have also 
a similar efTect on such soils. 

During the Summer-season, a proper state of fermenta- 
tion is only to be produced in the soil when it is neither 
too* w# nor to dry. Poughing, however, when the ground 
is very dry, if not so good for producing a state of ferment- 
ation, is, nevertheless, good for killing all weeds and grass, 
with which the soil may be infested. 

FERN CPoly/iodium.J This wefed grows' in some cold 
loamy soils in the northern parts of this State; but it 
appears to be easily extirpated by tilling the land. In the 
northern parts of Europe, it is in many places troublesome 
and difficult to subdue. They, howev^, esteem it much 
when made into manure, as it contains a large portion of 
alkaline salts. In some parts of the north of Europe, they 
burn it, and gather the ashes, which, being weted with 
water, are made into little balls, and dried in the sun, and 
are then esteemed to be nearly as good as soap, for the 
purpose of washing. 

Barilla is made from fern, by burning the plants in kilns, 
so that no air can approach them during their calcination. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 103 



FLAX (Linum.) Such crops of flax as are usually 
raised do not pay tor the labor bestowed on them. This 
must be owing to bad managepient. As this is a ci'bp that 
the Farmer must raise, if he has any regard to Domestic 
Economy, the means of raising it to advantage should be 
duly attendf d to. ^ 

A good method of raisii% a great crop of flax is as fol- 
lows : Summer-fallow a piece of ground of suitable soil, 
and give it six or eight ploughings and harrpwings, during 
the Summer, so as as to destroy all the seeds of weeds. 
Apply your manures during the first ploughings, unless 
they be composts, or top-dressings ; at all events, let the 
soil be eventually made rich enough for hemp. 

The next Spring, mellow the ground well again by two 
or three ploughings, harrow it, and sow, of well-cleaned 
seed, at the rate of about three bushels to the acre, and 
harrow it in lightly. Give the ground a top-dressing, of 
about four bushels of fine salt to the acre, and also some 
gypsum, if the soil be suitable. Let the crop be 'lown 
about the first of May, or as soon as the ground can be 
effectually prepared, after vegetation has commenced. By 
five or six hundred* pounds of flax may be expected from 
this method of culture, and with a proper change of seed, 
the acre, of a fine quality. -^ 

This is probably about the best culture ; and all devia- 
tions from it, by less expensive methods in preparing the 
ground, will, generally, be so much for the worse. Ground 
may, however, be pretty well prepared for a good crop by 
previous hoed crops, which have been well manured, parti- 
cularly if pains be taken to prevent any weeds g,oing to 
seed in the Fall. Weeds are the enemy of flax; and no 
good crops can be raised on ground that is full of their 
seeds, even though it be sufficiently rich and well prepared. 

See further. Folding of Land, for a proper method of 
preparing the ground for flax. 

In addition to the requisites of a rich earth, free of the 
seeds of weeds and well mellowed, for obtaining a good 
crop of flax, anothei/ requisite is, that the ground shall not 
have borne flax, for as much as seven years previous to the 
time it is to be sown with this crop. Almost every soil, 
that is sufficiently dry for a proper degree of fermentation, 
may, by being well prepared, as above directed, be made 
to yield good crops of flax, unless the soil has too little 
moisture, as may be the case with dry gravelly and light 
sandy earths. , ' ' 

But a very essential point, in raising great crops of<flax, 
is to have frequent change of the seed. 
See Change of Se^ds. 



* 



104 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

The quantity of seed sown should be proportioned to the 
strength of the soil. Flax of good length, but coarse, may 
be raised on a soil far from being rich, if it be well mel- 
lowed, clear of weeds, and sown with not more than three 
pecks of seed to the acre. We have seen four hundred 
and fifty pounds raised from one bushel of seed, sown on 
better than un acre and a halfv of ground. Such flax is, 
however, not so well filed for'^fine spining. Where the 
stalks stand so thin as to branch at the roots, they also 
branch widely -at the tops, and, though more seed is in 
such case to be expected, still the lint will be less in pro- 
portion, and of a coarser quality. 

If flax is to be water-roted, it should be pulled as soon as 
the blossoms have fallen off; and at this time the coat of 
the stalk is stronger than afterwards. The ground also 
which produces the crop is less exhausted, than when the 
crop has stood) until fully ripe. If it is to be roted on the 
ground, it should stand until nearly ripe ; and then the seed 
can , be saved, which is a matter of some consequence. 
That which is designed for affording seed, for sowing 
again, should have the seeds ripened most belore pulling. 

The process of water-roting flax, which is almost wholly 
practised in Ireland, is very similar to that of water-roting 
hemp, and the same precautions .^re requisite. 
iSee Hemp. 
Probably the method of roting by boHiog, as mentioned 
there, might be found equally proper for flax. The method 
common in this Country, of roting on the. ground,, is so well 
known, that it is useless to say any thing of it farther, than 
that the flax should be spread thin and evenly, and that it 
should be turned over, when about half roted; otherwise 
^the under side will be more r-oted than the upper. - /-: 

Flax that is harsh may be softened, in the manner direct- 
ed for hemp. That which is roted too much may be re- 
stored to its strengtlx, by keeping it a few years. 

It is a very nice point to give flax the proper degree of 
roiing. If roted too much, its strength is impaired for pre- 
sent use, and it wastes more in cleaning; and, if roted too 
lUtle, a great addition of labor is requisite in filing it for 
use. That which. is coarse will rot quicker than that which 
is fine; these should, therefore, be kept separate while 
rotinvj, in order that the latter have longer time for this 
purpose. The short and the long should also be sorted, as 
it is inconvenient to have them mixed, in dressing. 

In some parts of Europe, the dressing of flax is a busi- 
ness carried on by itself, and water-machinery is generally 
u^ed for the purpose. Many kinds of labor are accelerated 
by being divided into different brapches ; as it is found that 
those following a. particular brancE become oicre expert in 

♦ 



'FARMEfe>s ASSISTANT. los 

■ **» 

St, and cf course .can perform the labor better, and at the 
same time cheaper. f ^ >. ^ 

The Farnier, perhaps, would do- well to make more of a 
J>usiness of raising flax, whpn he becomes engaged in it, 
by raising: enough in one season to last him two or three 
years: He ^^muld thep have a greater io^ducement to go 
more spiritefty into the mosfcpproyed method, of culiiva^ 
tion, from the ^conviction, that cultivating it jn the most 
complete manner, and pretty largely at a time, is the only 
way to make tl)^ business profitable. 

Particular m^ should- be taken fo have the seed perfect- ' 
ly clean; and- also, to sow it evenly. This is best eipTected 
by first sowing one-iialf of thp seed over the who|e grgund, 
and then the pther half, cross v/ise. It should be sown in a 
calm time. 

FLOODING OF^ LANDS. Where svjramprland is to be 
cleared, and it can be flooded, by making a dam at the oug.^ 
let, at a small expense, it is^a matter/of ecoiiomy to att^i 
to this, as in this way its growth of wood can be completSy 
killed. This may also bp performed. ^onian^s, after they are \ 
cleared, for the purpole* of killing the grass, if it b^e ba^, in 
order with more ease to ihtroduce a better kind, or a bette]^ 
system of ^culture'. Flooding also serves, in a greitjer or 
a less degree, ^o enr jth the , land 5 thojigh this depends 
chiefly on ihe* kind of vyatei:' with \yhichr it is flooded. 
If it conuln a rj^li sedinient, il is 'jgopdj but, if destitute 
of this, i|t J§ ,pf no 'use. 

See iMPRpVEMENT OF ^LaNDS. 

' / ' ' ' ' r . ■ ■■■ * 

FO-AL^, or colts. To raise the best Colts,, this first ^ 
step is to procure the best Breeding mares, then put theni 
to the best Horses, and give the Colts good.keepiiig, par- 
ticularly during the first Winter after theip^\a^.f^ weaned. 
The proper time for leaning is the begining of fodiiering- 
time; and then thfey ought to be put in a stable by them- 
selvei^, kept on good h-jy, arid Jed regularly twice a day, 
during "Wiriter, with oats, or some other nourishing food. 
The next Summer, they ought to have gopd^^p^siure. 

Colts ^re frequently sf>oited by poor keeping at the time ^ 
they' reqiiire the best; and this, as is the, case with all other ^ 
young anJmals, is during the first Wilitpr. ^/^er this th^y 
do not require better keeping than is requisite for oHj^f^ 
Hogles. If' Colts be not welt kept the liriit Winter^ they 
are very apt to ^et stunted ;*and of this they never wholly 
recover. If F«i9^rmers would pay more attention to keeping, 
their Colts in the best li^nner, as well as a due, attention to 
the selectioi^roi Breeding m^|es, and of HorseV for cover 



iOG FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

ing, we should soon find the breed of Horses in our Coun- 
try much improved. 

FODDER AND FODDERING. Much chaff and straw^ 
that is often thrown away, q;)ay with a little pains be made 
gOpd fodder for, cattle, b^ being mixed with ^reen corn- 
"^taliks, or with Ha/ not fully'^dried, and sprinkling a little 
salt throughout the whole. ' In this way the moisture and 
pnjiUch ot the sweetness of the stalksi or hay, is absorbed by 
the straw and chaff, and, with the addition/of the salt, the 
whole mass is converted into good fodder. (jGkltle will also 
eat striiw or^ chaff very well, after having some brine 
sprinkled over it. r jrw 

Salting all fresh hay, wheh put up, is a great addition to 
it, as it renders it more nourishing to cattle, and of course 
will go further in keeping, them. A respectable Farmer of 
this county (Herkimer ) who keeps a large stock of cattle, 
s^ys, he is certain, that adding eight qusirts of salt to each 
toil of hay will make it g^ as far, as a ton and a quarter that 
has not been salied. At the same time, hay may be put 
into tlie mow, when salted, in a much greener state .than 
willjout it; and wlien^taken out will be found almost as 
green and apparently as fresh as when first stowed away. 

H4y which is storec^ in narrow mows, or on sc^affolds, will 
keep well with te%s dryip^g than that which is put into large 
mows To prevent hay from, damaging in a jarge mow, 
somie recommend a barrel or a Stuffed saclt to be placed in 
the centre, and gradually 'Taised as the mqw is raised: 
T|»Ls forms an opening in the middle, through ^liich the 
ste#m o| the heated hay can pass off, and thereby prevent 
it ffom being mow burnt. Another method is, to piit the 
driest hVy in the centre, and the wetest nearest the out- 
sides. 

See also, Barn. 

Meadows whieh produce wild grass ought to be mowed 
very early, and the hay well salted down ; and in this way 
tattle will eat it nearly as well as they will herdsgrass.. 

Stacking of hay in meadows, to be fed out there, is a 
pdor plan ; as the meadows are in this way often much in- 
jured by the treading of the cattl^fand, when this is not the 
case, much hay is generally wasted, and the dung of the 
cattle turns to liiile or no account. The JFarmer ought 
.always to have sufficient room in his barn, and hayhouses, 
\o hold all his hay; or, if he has not this, he ought to 
s^gk his hay adjoining his barn, and then it can be easily 
tiirown in at once, when his barn is emptied^- 

Foddering should not be-comnienced tiir it Is really ne- 
cessary; for, 'when the cattle,^|fave been taught to expect ft, 
they will neglect their other feeding. Fodder at first in 



FAJlMEB's ASSISTANT. lor 

. • 
Ihe morning, wh^n the frost is on the ground. Neat-cattle 
should not yet bei housed; but Horses Sliould. In cold rains 
they should, however, be sheltered) as these are more hurt» 
Au\ than cold dry weather. "a*" /'^ 

The meanest fodder shoij^lcf not" J|e dealt out first, but 
leave this tor severer weather ' If ihe' stock of fodder is too 
scanty for tHp stock of catlfe, don't pinch them' im the fore- 
part of the W^inter: They can better^endure scanty living, 
when they have become hardened to the rigors -^of the 
season. * 

Some Fawi^rs feed their straw ^entirely to^Some of tbe 
hardiest of the young catdej ancl fbr this^ pujj^osc keep 
them by themselves, without suffering them to 'taste any 
other food, by which means ttiey wijl keep tolerably well: 
But, perhaps, the better way is to lay aside the^striiw, wnen 
threshed, with some brifte sprinklfed over each layer, >.o a* 
to give a dei!;ree of saltl^fess to the whoFe mass; and, after 
it has Iain a while, to occasionally feed it out to all the 
neatcattle. This will answer in place of salting theip, 
and at times they will eat this foo*d with a gcfod relish. "^"■ 

It should be remembered» th^t cajttle" oUghc not to 'be 
kept constantly on salted fodder ; for in that cJsV they grow 
tired of it: A change of food/ sometimes: salt, and Some- 
times fresh, is best. "' '' V / 

Too much fodder shquld never bje jaid before cattle at 
once: Rather let them have a little at a time, and be fed 
the oftener. ^y constantly breathing on tlieir food, it be- 
comes less palatable; and for this reason th6y will eaf that 
which has been .jexposed to the open air apd winds, after 
they have rejected it in the stable. ' ^*^ ^ ^t. >, 

C&ttle, whicTi run but during Winter should have a 

shelter, and a rad^ under it tOr hold their fodder.' By this 

mean, most of their dijng, being drbped under t1ie shelter, 

will be preserved from the rains, and will, on that account, 

^*be much^better than that which has been more exposed.* 

Cows,"when near calving, should not be cdrifined to fheir 
stalls; but each should have a separate apartment, lirid be 
kept without tying. ' 

Horses keep well on clovei^'h^y-^ mixed with herdsgrass. 
If they are to be fed with Indian corn, or ^ther hard grain, 
it shouM be well soaked, ^boiled, or ground, before it is 
given them. .They may be kept in good order by teeding 
them with raw potatoes or carrots, washed clean ; though 
they would be more nourishing when boiled. Pumpkins 
are excelept for fating them. 
See P|^MPKiN. 

FOLDING OF LANI>jj Folding Sheep 6ft fields, which 
are ploughed up for fallOw-landj is a ver^good practice ^ 



i 



lbs FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

as in this way the land receives all the manure that is made 
from their tdiung and urine, witjiout the trouble of any pre- 
vious preparation, or carting, '&c. But iolding Sheep on, 
small pieces of ground, says Mr. VHommMieu^ will do the* 
Sheep as much injury as it Will benefit the land. 

The reason ot this seems to be, that when Sheep lie on 
ground on which they have preiviously lain and dunged, for 
several nights^ it beconfifes hurtful to them, fgr pretty much 
the. same feasons that they, are injured when too many of 
thein afe placed together in one pen during \Vinter: Their 
breath and this smellbf their excrements afjj^^^jurious to 
each other. But where they ^re folded in aiarger field, 
they choose a fresh place to lie down eyery night, and in 
this way eventually go over the whole field. 
■ It is said,, that in this way an hundred Sheep will,^ in one 
season, sufficiently manure a fallow of eight acres for a 
good cro{5 of wheat. JThe manure thusj made should be 
frequently ploughed or harrowed under^ ta prevent much 
©yits evaporation, :^; \^,^ ■ /' , '. 

^Ipldipg Covvsv Sec., oh^land,, can only be done to advan- 
^ tage on small pieces of ground designed for cabbages, 
turnips, kc; for, if put into a large field, they will almost 
alvvayVUie down oh nearly the s^^me spot. . 
I SeViMANUREs, for, an advantageous metli^ of folding 

CoWs^'&.b. -:.v,,7; ,' : ■ '".. ;■ . -, .■, 

A lo% spot of gr^ss'ground, which is inclined |(to bear 
coarse wild' grass, will' be mi\ch helped by .folding Sheep 
on it; to the injury of the Sheep, however; and so will a 
dry spdjt, by, folding Cows on it. ' ^^^ ^ 

When ground , is folded for ; raising turnips, instead of 
m sowing'tbis crop the first yeiw, let it be frequently plough- 
ed, in order to killalVthe weeds, and sc^wri early with fi;»x 
the next ^Spring, and then vvith turnips, after the flax is 
taken c^ff^ Great crops of flax may in this manner be 
raised ; and by again mellowing the ground, aftcr^the flax- 
crop, a very ^ood croj) ci turnips may be raised the same 
season. 

FOOD OF PLANTS. Every seed containSv a plant iji 
embryo:- When it has Acquired its lull size^and shape ft*is 
,then a fSerfect plant. In the mean time, it derives, first 
irom the seej^ itself, then from the air, the eartl^,' and from 
%vater, certain food which noari^hes it and causes it io grow 
16 maturity. 

From the air it is supposed to absorb hydrogene gas, and 
the septous principle, or azote; and for this^eason will 
grow most thrifty in large cities," or in the vicinity of 
animal putridity. Let any putricj^^^ecaying flesh be laid in 
a field of gro^ng plants, and tliose which are nearest ta 



• ^ FARMIIR's assistant. 109 

4bc putrid iri^ttier will grow much faster than 'those, at a 
distance; l?ecause those nearest have a greater chance of i* 
absorbing the impure air emited from it, than those growing 
farther off. , '^, 

5ee further, Air. ;^ 

From the earthrplants derive some of theip component 
parts, as discovered by chemical analysis ; such as earths, 
salts, oil, Sec* and from water^ whfether mixfed with thei 
earth, or otherwise, they imbibe the juices or sap, which i^ 
so essential to their existence. 

See SA|^i^ : ■ ;,• ■ \,{., :^ 

Some manures, it would seem, •operate by attracting ^ 

matter whioh is food for plants; siich as gypsum, which is 
supposed to attract nitre pid moisture'. Ashes afford salts 
and attract nitre. Other man ure^^ again afford, in part^ 
the food of plants, and atiihe sai^e time assist 'theni in ob- 
taining more from the earthj^ by opening it for the more 
easy extension of their roots ; such -as barn-dung and ma- 
nures of that kind. Others, perhaps, assist directly in sup- 
plying food ; such aS salt^r blood, putrid fleshj Sec. Others, 
again, merely serve to Open earths which are too solid to 
admit the roots in search of food; such as sand, roten wood, 
sawdust, Sec. applied to clays. And, lastly, day applied to 
sand assists, an part, byfsupplying additioiial food, ana. pigj-tly 
by enabling, the soil to retain a sufficiency' of watei* to sup- 
ply plants with the requisi^fe proportion of this article. 
^ Some plants extract their food princip^ly from the ajr; 
sotne, mostly fEorri air and water; and othersj, principally 
from the earthi The hyacintlj^ and many other plant^, will 
gt^tow 'well with air an^ water, without the assistaiice of 
earth. ' Biit, generally speakin;g, plants require tlie united ^ 
assistahde of air, wat6r, and earth • and froiii t\iese they 
extract that fodd which is requisite to bripg them to per- 
fection. ; 
^'' Some plants acquire most of one ^kirid of fdod from the 
earth, and some another. Tap- rooted plants, again^dewve 
their nourishment from a greater depth; while those with 
fibrous roots merely ext^-act from the surface. Hedce,^ ine 
earthy as the conninon parent of plantsi 'may become ex^ 
hausted, in cohtinually producing some kinds; while it niay 
still be well fited for the jDroduction of others ; and hence? 
in som# i^tances, arises the necessity ot a change of prop's. 
See CiiAwG*Evt)F Crops. . 

FOREST. , Every farm ought to have a piece of wood- 
land, or forest, sufficiient for fiiel and other plurposes. 
Raising timber, for the purpose of fencing, will not often' 
be found advisable. Farmers must eventuaUy depend on 
making stohe viralls, or hedges, for the purp(y^bf enclosing .,^. 



no FARMER'S ASSISTANT. ^ 

their lands. , But wood and timber 'sufficient for fuel, for 
building, for carriages, and implements of feirming, cannot 
be dispensed with. Qt these, the Farmer will jalways find 
it most advantageous^ to keep the requiaue stock himself, 
and not rely on others for purctrasing it. Nor is u advisa- 
ble to have his woodlands separate, and at a considerable 
distance from his farm; unless it be m parts of the country 
wliere part 6\ the lands are too valuable to be kept in wood, 
and other adjacent parts are only fit for ihat purpose. 

Wben the Farmer is ^learmg up his farm, he ought to 
reserve, for woodland, that part which is 1^'isi adapied for 
tillage, or for grass Land which is swampy with a thin 
soil over a &indy bottbmi that is rocky and hilly^ or that is 
dry, poor, OT very graVelly, ^may do well for woodland; 
while it woi/ld answer bitt indifferently for fiilage. 

The quantity of ground to be ^et apart for this purpose 
rtiust depend' on tnd size of^^he faj^pti^, the qualiiy of the 
soil of the wooMland; the nature of the climatt ; and, fre- 
quer^tly, according to the demand or market fo'* wood ; for, 
in some easel,, it rtjay- be found more^ profitable to keep 
tolerably good land in Avoodj than in any otuer cultivation. 
Of the' natural growth of wood, it w'ill require as much as 
twenty acres, or more, to keep two fires, according to the 
common method of' using wood for fuel; but> it is a very 
easy matter to hav<i^ siting-rooms wjtrmed, aqd ail, the cook- 
ing and oth^r atjparatus of tlife kitchen so conti^yed, as not 
to require mofe than one-tfiird of the w^d ti)^t is com* 
monly used, "' '^' '' 

S^e Warming of Rooi^s. \ 

Tb thicktn a forest, or to prev^t its becoming^ too thin, 
cattle should be kept out of it ^t all seasons. The ^eeds, 
or cuiings of trees, of rapid growth, should alsOxbiEi set, or 
planted, in every part that becomes destitute of growing 
wood. If woodland be suffered to become so thin, that the 
sun can get in and cause the ground to be covered with a 
sWard of grass, this will prevent the further growth of 
y6ung timber ; and in this way the ground eventually be- 
comes striped of all, its growth. This,Jhowever, is not the 
case ;i^][th the locust, as it encourages the ;gi:owth of grass 
amongst it, and in this situation grows very rapidly, per- 
haps the "Farmer will find, when he is reduced to the ne^ 
ce^sity of planting wood lor fuel, that this tree #ilSftS»swer 
his purpose best. ^ * ' ** 

See LoctJST. 

The Lombardy- ppptar.alsp' grows very rapidly, is easily 
raised from cifllngs, ana^ when <iiat and dried, will answer 
tolerably welt for fuel. ^^^ 

The easiest method of raiding the locust is as follows j 
Plant, in th6' first instance, about fifteen or twenty trees on 



FARMER^s ASSISTANT. in 

• • * 

an acre; when -they have got to be twelve or fifteen feet 
high, and their roo^ vvfell extended, "run straggling furrows 
through the ground, and, Wherever the^/roois are cul&vith 
the plough, new trees will start up, and soon stock the 
whole ground with a plelwitul grotvth. This tree has been 
but lately introduced into general use in France; and it is 
said to be there valued more than any other which is culti- 
vated in that Countrjr. ' >^jj, .. , 

Where- wood is raised merely for-'fuel, it may be silvered 
to grow as thick as ife'will; it becomes sufficiently thined 
of itself, as it^grows larger ^ but where oak, or any other 
trees, are to Bt^ raised for timberv the j' ought to stand fur- 
ther apart, in order to have their growth rapid, and the 
timber firijl^' and durable,^ 

If woods! are old and decayin'^,thef better way is'to^t 
all off, as you ^ant to use the wood, aod let ap%n,tire n^W 
growth start up, which >^11 grow more rapidly. 

Much poor exhausted lands ^m this'"Cotihtry should be 
planted with forests,' to supply' the waste of Wood that is 
constantly increasing: -For raising oaks, which are an es- 
sential article, some'jjirect to let the acorns be ploughed 
under, with a shoal ftfrrowi in the Fall; or they may then 
be buried in a bed of eartH,'- and, after they have sprouted 
in the Spring, planted as biefore, at the distance of about a 
foot from each mher.: They^ may aiso^be planted'- 19 the 
swardj at the depth of about two ii^cev l>y diging little* 
holes for Ihe purpose. ' * ~ 

5eev further, Oak. - ^ \. -^ 

Let the wefeds be kept down till the young growtli ot the 
forest shall have overpowered tHem, The str6hgest plants 
will keep down the weakest, arid thus sufficiently thin the 
trees, ^as they increadge in size^ but, where a growth fop 
timber is intended, let the weakest be cut jaway to give 
more ro6m for the strongest, after they, have attained some 
considerable size. Let np'caule be^admited into the forest, 
until the tre^s are beyond their reach; and, at no time 
whatever, where young sucessive growths for ^uel is in- 
tended. . • - 

FOUNDERING of HORSES, We usually, say that a 
Horse is foundered, when his Idgs and feet have becdme 
stifFened and sore, by gating too large a quantity pf hard 
grain at once. The heist, remedy for ^tWs, is ex'erirse'by 
riding; and in addition tg this let the bits of his bridle be 
wound round with a rag*!^ into which let as much human 
terdure be put as it will hold. Put^this into his^moutli^, and 
let him chew upon it while riditrgUum, and iir.r>^u^ season 
repeat the dose, if necessary.* 



i\^ FARMER*s ASSISTANT. 

■ ♦• 
But there is a disorder of the feet of Horses, in which 
they are alsj^ said to be foundered/ This is a painful dis- 
ease: The Horse affected with it draws himself up in a 
heap, and is; loth to move. It is gjccasioned ^y )^anding in 
cold water, after being *heated vvith exercise; or, some- 
times, even -by standing still in the stable several days, after 
exercisi^ 5 sometimes by bad .shoeing, or by bruises on the 

legs. : ' m' 

III this case, if a remedy be npt speedily applied, a 
gathering will take place in ' the feet, and , the hoofs will 
be cast off; by which the use of the Horse ^ill be lost for 
some time. The remedy ils, to slit the hoofs open from top 
to bottom, so that blood will follow pretty freely*^ In order 
tp cure , these wounds again, apply tar, turpJ^tine, and 
hopey, melted toget&er^ with a fourthpar|^ of-, the spirits 
of wine. Let pledgets made of tow be soaked in this, and 
then laid in the chinks, and the fobt bound up. These are 
nbt to be opened' fof two days; and trfen let fresh applica- 
tions be made -every day, till the channels in the hoffs be 
grown up/ i : 5 ' ? 

If the sole of the foot is -s^lso di^ayfn, it must be served 
in £^ similar manncir. A piece of leather should be laid 
over the sole, and the whole fdot so ly)und up with strong 
bandagesj that the applications itJay not b6 displaced. 

FREEZING. E^ery h'ard stiff so;l, when thrpwn up in 
ridges in the Fall, and mellowed by the froi^tsj receives 
thereby, an essential addition to its fertilityV.^y, A'r Winter's 
frost is hot, hovyever, always sufficient to mellqw the largest 
clods; those should, therefore^, be broken in pieces in th6 
Fall, with the joHier, in ordet to derive full benefit from the 
frosts."-' ''■;.' V ' " ' " ' .' / , *■ 

A Farmer of Newjersey, sotile y^ars since, trench* 
ploughed an exhausted field of clayey §oil in tlie Fall 5 
cross-ploughed a part of it, and in" that part broke the 
lumps to pieces. In the Spring, the field was all ploughed 
equally, and sow|? With barley and clover. The part on 
which the most labor had thus been bestowed was in fine 
order when sown, and yielded about thirty bushels an acre, 
of barley t The other part v^as sti^lin lumps, the frosts i>pt 
having been found sufficient to mellow them entirely, ahd 
the pro(^uct-of.^barl'ey was only about twenty bushels an' 
acre.* The same^ tliiTerence was afterwards observed in the 
clover. ^ , .,. ^ ». 

But this field,' with, this stratum of crude earth thrown 
uppermost, would ha've yielded little or nothing the next 
Spring, and until mellowed and fertilized by Summer-sunsj 
had it not been mellowed and fert^ilizsd by Winter- frosts. 



%■ 



S^A][iMER*& ASSISTANT. !1$ 

Another bcnc^t derived from freezing is, lyjlatlt ser^^es 
to restore all soils to a due stale of sen^ibiliiy (b the emigra- 
tion of heat. 

Heat is the stimulant dljlloilsj but, as is the case with all 
stimulants, the longer it is applied without intermission, the 
less powerful it becomes; particularly in the production 
of grasses and other plants which are natural to northern 
climates. Thus, a degree of^lfeat which in the Fall will 
not be foi^id sufficient to make those plants grow, will 
make them grow rapidly, when a,pplied to them in the 
Spring In tl^is respect, thereforjCt Iree^mg,. which is only 
the absence of heat, servtes as^ a kind of r^esfcorative to the 
£oil, and r^is it for the productipn of those plants.. Thus 
freezing is t fertilizer of sti^ soils, and a restorer of all, by 
renewing tnfeir sensibility to the effects of heat* 

When plant^ hdve been frostbiten^ whiie growing, they 
may be restored by sprinkling them plentifully, while in. the 
frozen state, wi|h brine, , or with water containing a solucion 
of sal-ammoniac, which 1^ belter. ^ , 

FRUIT-TREES. ^Wi ^i^orsijt/i's essay on these has been 
justly esteemed, for^its originahiy and research. It. is, how- 
ever, a production best calculated lof the Country where ic 
was writeni and even there, perhaps, some parts of it may 
be found more pleasant in theory than profitable in practice. 
His composition tor curing defects in trees, and restoring 
old decayed ^:^nes, and the method of preparing it, shall be 
first notice4v4p<i ^^ as follows: ^ ^ v, 

^^ Take a bushel of fresh cowdung, half a bushel ol lime- 
mibbish from tjip ceilings of old ropms, which is bjBst (or 
pounded Aalk; or old .slaked lime, will aniwer) halt a 
bushel of wood ashes, anil a sixteenth of xiyer sa*nd j, sift the 
three last artrcles, fine,, before they ar© mixe^ ; \vork them 

fpll together by beajting, £^g. so as completely tjsvmix theni*': 
hen reduce the |nass to the consistence of thick paint, by 
ixing with 10" a ^uflicient quantity of urine and sqapsuds, 
so that it can be used with, a brush. A good coat of. this is 
to be applied to the naked wood, where a limb is^ cut off, o^ 
the wood otherwise laid bare, and t'he powder of wood-ashes 
and burnt- bones is to besprinkled over thisj and gently 
pressed down with the hand. When any of the "composition 
is left for future use, it rs to be cove|",ed with urine, t» pre^- 
serve it from the atmosplnfere, which injilres it. ,*»' 

With this composition,! ^r. Forfit/lh restores old ''rd ten 
decai^ed trees to a flourishing state. In order tQ do, this, 
all \hh roten^nd dei^x] part of the Iree is first cut JiVay and 
scooped out, quite down into<the roots, till you conie to the 
live wood, and then stno6the4, and the edges next the live 
l3ai?k rounded of!". Then the. conf) position is laid on with a 



114 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

brusb> a«d covered, €s befeii*c directed, , with the powder. 
As llie baii^on the edges grows over this cQvered wood, h 
workb off the composition and supplies its plape, till at 
length I he bark ot the two edge^ftieets and g>oiWs together. 
If the growing bark should raise up any flkes ot the com- 
position, so as to expose the wood, let them be pressed 
down with the finger some rainy day, when the composition 
isjiliable. !^; 

Where a tree would be too much weakened, by cuting 
away all its dead wood at once';; cut only a part away next 
the edges, and as the bark covers this cut away more. 
Where limbs are cut off; let the slumps be pared smooth 
and the edges rduuded, bVloire the compositiog is laid on. 
He s3ys, this should ^always be applied wherever a limb is 
cut offj in order to preserve the tree from rof^g at such 
places. 

He makes met^lioR ot many old decayelB trees, some 
<jf whose trunks were roted ii#^y two-thifds, and halt 
of the roots ti^one, which he restored to a sound flourishing 
State, by the process, above described. It is, liowever, said, 
that some who have tried the t xperiment in this Country 
have not been successful; but, whether this may be ascril>- 
ed to a want of skill in the pertorraance, or a difference in 
climate, is peKhaps not well ascerrained. Perhaps the com- 
position ought to varied in its materials, so as to be better 
adapted to the greater degree of tieat and dryness which 
prevails in our atmosphere. 

He also make^ mention of shaving off all the cankery 
bark of old stunted trees, then scantying the remaining 
bark, where they were bark-bound, and covering the whole 
with his ctfflaposiiion^ vyhicli produced a surprising altera- 
tion in their growth. ' ^ ^ • 

In lieu of the above composition^ the folio wiifg has been 
successfully used aiiout Albany, for healing the wood, and 
for covering the stock in ^;ratting : Take two parts of bees- 
wax, one of rosin, and bne of hogslard; liftelt them, and 
blend, them together. It must he made/^soft- enough to put 
it on with the hand ; and let it bfe laid on thickest round 
the edges and thinly in the middle. If it become top soft,, 
duringf'the heats of Summer^ let a little powdered rosin be 
sprinkled over it. '^'^^^ v 

Mr. Forsyth^^ method of fieadm^^down trees, in ord^r to 
rertovate their grov/lhVand to procure a new set of slTaight, 
thrifty, bearing limbs, is as fq|lows.: First, take off one or 
two pi the princips^ limbs, just above an ey^s let them be 
cut slanting downwards,* with the sides where the e)^e is 
the highest; pare and round off the ends of the stumpSj 
and cover them with the composition. Presently, sprouts 
will start out from the eyes, w^hich are to be trained ^tj 



FARMER'S ASSIST A^jf. 115 

pruned for newr. bearing limbs. When these l^ve grown a 
litlle, cut-off more of the limbs, and go ihroii^i^h the ^me 
process whh them, and ^ on, till they are Ai taken off. 
Thus, a new set ot ihrJi^ limbs are given lo the tree, 
which will be better bearers than the old. The new 
growths soon cover the stumps, so as to leave only a slight 
cicatrix. ^ 

He speaks of heading down some trees at once, and par- 
ticularly recommtnds the heading down of all young troes 
while in the nursery, by taking of the whole trunk a little 
above the ground, and m the manner above directed, which 
he says will greatly improve their Imure growth, and make 
"^them bfetJEir bearers. Hii . mOtjitions, particularly, some 
young oaks^, he thus headed "^oWn, which afterwards grew 
more than as fast again as those whicli were not. 

He also describes a method of pruning the limbs at their 
bearing ends. This is to take off ihe most^prominent twig, 
when it has become tired of bearing, close to the next 
lateral branch ; and then this shoot^i foivvdrd iind becomes 
the bearer: When this has in lil^ ni toner become tired 
of bearmg, the lin^b is to be tukcn/<)ff, back at the ne:it 
lateral t^anchjf and tl>e next shoots torward again, and 
so on. . .^:-' . r-' .' ' ■ ' ■- ; 

This may be a good plan to keep trees in the dvvarf-state, 
which is so much practised in Greaibritain ; iTbeing neces- 
sary there to raise much of their more tender fruit by the 
sides of walls, H'^de very^ high for. the ^purposs ,• round the 
fruit-gardens; and there, the keeping of some kinds ot iruit- 
trees in thfe dwarf state, is the jnore necessary. 

Fruit trees are subject to a disease, called the canker. It 
occasions the bark to gfjrjow rou^h and scaby, Snd turns the 
wood affected to a rusty-brown color. It will soipetimes 
kill the tree, if not ren)edied in due season. 
:^ This disease may arise from various, cai2se¥; fr6m bad< 
j)runing ; fri^ dead shoots left, on the . tree ; from frosts 
killing the 1® year's shoots. See. " " 

The diseased parts are* to be entirely cut away, till 
nothing but sound white wood remains; or, if the disease 
be merely in the bark, th^ outer bar^k must be cut awayj 
and if the inner bark be .aIto affected, vi^hich is to be known 
by its exhibiting small black, spots, like the dots of a pen; 
cut all away that is thus affected, and let the composition 
be applied, as before directed. . 

In the Memoirs of the P))iladelphia Agriculiuraj Society, 
we find mention of a disease of appletrees, called the bitter 
rot. Whether this is merely another name top tfefe canker, 
w6 ^re unable to say. It is, however, cured by" taking off 
all the bark of the body .'of tiiC' tree, and some ^little distance 
up the large linabs ; v/hen a new bark, wiif presently forpn^ 



lie FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

and restore^e tree. This operation is dir^Ud to be pcf* 
forrri'ed durrag the longest day in the year. * , 

Fruit trees, ot the bione km^, are trequentif:.^ diseased 
wich gwn^y^ which arises from md pruning, bruises, and 
other causes. The diseased pans are to be cut away, and 
the composition applied- as belore. 

Thus nfiuch for Mr. Forsy^th. Those who are anxious to 
be more intimately acquaicftfcd vviitf this Author, will do 
Jiwoll to puichuse his book, In the plates annexed to it are 
cxhibued many specimens ot bis ingenuity. 

If fruit trees be suffered to run much to suckers, theso 
will greatly tOjUre their b0aving,> Let them, therefore, be 
kept clear of these. Airstraight upri,y;ht shoots,^ from the 
limbs of trees, should also be Sken away, for these bear no 
fruil ; though in time their lateral branches will bear. Lat- 
eral branches are always^ the bearers; and such branches., 
as do not bear, only serve to rob the bearing branches of 
their requisite nourishment; and should therplore^ be taken 
away. The trees should, also be cleared oijt.H dead and 
decaying branches, anii ^ of all crpss-biancfifes thai rub 
against each other. vf,t -^ 

Young ai^ple and plumtreesv in ^|ii?tiGularf arc |npt Jo get 
covered with what are ustfally called /ice, being an inani- 
nuate subsia^iee resembling an insect, of the color, and 
somewhat of the shape, of a grain of flixsefedi but narrow- 
er. Where the ba^'k is, thickly covered with these, the 
growth of the tree ivill be very much iaipedjg^ and sone- 
times it will be killed, if they are not removed.' -They are to 
be scraped off with a knife. Moss ought also to be scrape^ 
off, as it greaily injures the growth of the tree. 

For keepnig off moss, lice, audjl every thi«g else that 
Should ^e kept off frorai young appld and- som%iOther fruit- 
trees, it is a.good pti^h to whitewash their bodies, and prin- 
^Gipal limbsf '^very Spring, with a mixture, of lime and wa;-u^ 
ter. Mr. i^rs?/;;/!, however, recommends, fo^i*^this purpose/ 
a mixture ot old urine, cowdung, and soaplfids.. Where 
young fruit- trees stand in swari^i^ round, the sward should 
be cut away from about them, and the^ ground about their 
XOOiS loosened every Spring. ; 

It ia ik>uhd, that the seeds of thie apple, and probably all 
other fiuit-trfces, whjch are .brought from EuropiCj here, 
will' grow larger than those of our own. Probably, tbis is 
merely the effect of a change of seed: II so, our seeds 
sown there might produce the same inequality. Be this as 
it may"^ it is by no means certain, that tlie largest fruit-trees 
are the most profitable to the acre ;• as, the larger they acj?^ 
the more^ground each must have. ;• 

^ee further, the articles whic|ji.tre»t of the various kinds 
•<Qf;;{ruit<.tre£a. - 'r ' ''; -. 



farmer's' ASSISTANT. 117 



% 



FUEL. In the Northern States, fuel is ah expensive 
article, not only to the Farmer, but to those who live in 
villages and towns. To tfi% Farmer, however, this article is 
usually the most expensive ; as, on account ot his noc duly 
esliniiting the real e^ense he incurs for fuelj h€ is in the 
habit of using it in prtftusipn ; generally consuming, together 
with what he isuifers to be wasted, twice or three times the 
quantity really til^quisiie for^ the use of a family. 

A Farmer, with a farm of two hundred acres of land, 
generally leaves about fifty acres of it uncleared, principal- 
ly for the purpose of supplyin|^ himself witj^ fuel. This 
land, in the older settled parts of the Country, and where 
wood is becoming more scarce, woitld, on an average, com- 
mand a price of, say, forty dollars an ac,re, or two thousand 
dollars for his fifty acres, the interest of which is one hun- 
dred and twenty dollars a year. 

Then add about thirty-seven cents, as the expense, per 
load, of cuting and drawing homes-about one hundred and 
tvfenty loads a year, which amounts to upwards of forty^four 
dollars, and the Farmer will find he incurs an expense of 
more than one hundred and sixty Mbllars a year for his 
fuel; a sum whioh^is about double what is usually expend- 
ed by a family living in a village, and perhaps more than is 
usually expended, for this article, by a family living in our 
more large and opulent towns. - I 

Under article, Warmistg of Rooms, we have described 
some improvements in the means oi warming one or more 
apartments, with the least expense ; by which it is estimat- 
ed, that as much as two-thirds pf ihe usual expense, ol fuel, 
for this purpose, may bp saved.' 

And, under'the article, Steamboiler, we have also 
pointed out the means of greutly tdssening'j.the expense 
of cooking, boiling, 8^g. by means of which a^%qual saving 
of fuel niay^be iiiade. Thus enabling a Farmer^ of the de- 
scription just-^ment>oned,|,p" retrench his expenses, in fuel, 
more thali one hundred doli^ts a year. 

But, in addition to *all this, great savings m^f be made, 
by adopting the best means for making woodlands yield the 
greatest possible quantitjrjy^f wood, as well as of husbanding, 
to thfe best advantage, th« which is growing. 

The nmural growths of forests are but seldom compp^d 
©[ those trees which grow most rapidly. Such as ^re most 
GODgenial<to the soil, and climate, always cover the earthy 
in a state of Nature, whether their growths be rapid, or 
slow. At the same time, many trees of quiekgrowih will 
thrive well in soils, an(J climates, very different, from those 
where they were first foijind., Such is the^case with the 
ipcust, buttonwoodj Lombardy- poplar, willowj S;c. S^c. 



118 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

Where, th^efore, the ancient f(#ests are becoming more 
thined, it will' be tound good husbandry to supply the defi- 
ciency, thus made, by the introduction of other growths; 
such as the. locust, and Lombardy" poplar, for instance, on 
the drier soi^^, and buttonwdod, willow, 5;c. &c. on those 
which pelow and wet. ^ ^ 

See further, Forests. ; 

!ln husbanding any forest, <)P>|frowth c^^ trees, several 
things are to be observed. In the first pfti^e, the young 
trees, which are subject to be injun d by cattle, should be 
protected No cattle should be suffered to run in grounds 
covered with^(iuch growth; the cattle can acquire little or 
no food, but what lis gained ^^ the expense of the young 
trees i and, what is>gaine4 in ; this way, is greatly counter- 
balanced by the inju/y thus done to them. 

In the next place, when trees are to be cut down for 
fuel, those should be selected for the purpose which are 
the least productive, or that grow the least in a year: And 
this point is to be as;sertained, as well by the general 
appearance of the trees, whether, they bfe healthy ai^ 
sound, or otherwise, as by observing the yearly shoots of 
every tree^ as the limbs of those which grow the fastest 
shoot the greatest length evfery year. ^ ^ 

In thining the trees, som^ regard should also be had to 
their statidmg, as hearjy equi-distant as is compatible with 
the circiimstances just mentioned. In natural forests, too, 
those sorts of trees which naturally grow fiister^' than others 
of different kinds, should-be left standing; provided they 
are thrifty, and of a kind that is valuable for fuel. 

In felling the trees, they should be cut off^ as near the 
ground as possible, by which meansless wood Will be sut- 
ured to go to wast^^in the «tomp; and the small limbs 
should all be carri|# home, cut up, and laid under the 
woodhouse to^dry ; as a few of these, when dried, will often 
answer as well to boil a teakettle, or pot, as^!|here larger 
wood, in greater quantities, is'ased for the piirpose. All 
decayed and roting wbod should'iarso be brought home ; for 
this, w^hen dried under the woodhottse, wiii answer very 
well for fuel. 

See Wood HOUSE. -V,v - v^- - 

^ood should always be dried, before it is ua0?!v;yfor, 
aXtfeugh whentdried it will not last quite so long, in born- 
ing, as when green ; y.et one-l5alf of the quantity,. at a time, 
win give more Ijeat, and at the same time make a much 
pleasamer fire. There can be no doubt that, generally 
speaking, any given quantify of dry <||ybod, while consuming, 
will impart any given degree of heat^ for as much as one- 
lourth, andV with some kindsol wood, perhaps even two- 
thirds, of the' time longer,-^ than the same quantity of greea 



r ARMER V ASSISTANT. 1 1 9 

f -V-- 

wood : Of course, a prpporiionate saving may be made in 
the use ot the former, iif^preference Jo the latter. 

There is a saving in sawing woodi when carted home, in 
preference to ctoping it, as the sawing can be full as 
speedily and cheaply performed. A further saving is made, 
in culing up the wood quite short ; as a firi|,^cpm posed of 
♦billets of wood, not<vmoi^ than fo/urteen inch'esMong, will 
give nntore than two- thirds as much heat, as that made of 
wood of doubl^jgat length. ' 

The size inlopfehich wood slibuld be split, so as to be 
durable in burning, and yet give sufficient heat, is also a 
matter worthy of some c6n»ideration. If spilt very small, 
any given quantity will give more heat, loj^ while; but 
will be quickly consumed: t^^^ large, it will c^bnsume slow- 
ly ; but will burn less readifj^and give much less heat. Ot* 
the whole, we are inclin^ed to believe that billets, of from 
about thftee to four inches of a medium diameter, will be 
found the most economical, as avoiding the two extremes. 

Wood, when dried, forms the best of all fuel, not only as 
making the pleasan^est fire, but for all culioary purposes. 
I^st kinds of coal, as^ w«ll as peat, > and turf, the only other 
articles of fuel generally used, are by no means so conveni- 
ent, for many purpi^sfe, of cooking parfiicu-larly ; but, wlfere 
either of these caiii be procured, at nb^great distance, they 
are generally a cheaper article of fuelj than wood. 

Coa^needs no previous preparation %r use, but the 
mere digging it out of the earth. Peat, and turf, are easily 
raised, in the first instance, by means of a long narrow 
spade With a wing, set at right angles on the right side, 
by means of which a square chunk, about fourteen inches 
long, and four inches sqt^re, is cut out from the pit at 
every sinking of the spadef 

Bur, in order to render these matsges of earth fit for 
burning, some; fiitther steps are recf^isite: Each chunk, 
thus cut out, isf-to be hid ort the ground, separate by itself, 
to dry; and,'|[^hen partly dried, are to be piiedVopen, across 
each other ^''ifed thus, in*;^ few days of dry weather, they 
will be fit to cart homt^^lifor use. They^hoi^d be kept; 
under cover, in a dry state, for the purposes of iuel. 
These ea%hs fere very che^p kinds of fuel,, where they cahv 
be had on any farm, or at^tib great distance from it. 
•See further, Earths. , 

Where neither of the forcj^oing articles are to be had, 
for fuel, recoiii-se must be had to artiiroial means, for a sup" 
ply. In some instances, dried cowdung has been used, for 
this purpose. But the best artificial substitute fpfr fuel, that 
we can suggest, would be about equal parts of co^dung, or 
horsedung, and clay, well mixed together, an4 Cast, like 
bricks, into chunks, say, three or four inches square and 



126 ]?AR]!«R's ASSISTANT, 

aboujli twelve- inches long, and>^;^ that shape dried fol' 



burning. *** ' ' ' W ■ '^ * 

Clay, of itself, will undergo a proems of calcination^ 
when dried (See Burnt Clay) and we believe that, with a 
suitable qflantitj^ of either horse or powdung, mixed with it, 
and prepj^'e^^ in this way, it would answer tolerably well 
for fuej;, particularly when burned in a grate, with a tfiflb 
of dry wood to set fire to the mass. Nor would this be any 
great waste of manure ; as the ashes, thu|/;i|Qade, or rather 
the burnt clay, would probably be nearly,' aP quite, as val- 
uable, as a manure, as the dung which wottld thus be, 
wasted. ^^^ ' ' .' 

We woulfflBlastly, mention that, in the Domestic Ency- 
clopedia, published by Dr:^ -^^se, of Philadephia, a fuel is 
recommended, which is mad6^*6f clay, with a suitable quan- 
tity eithefr of common coal, or 6harcoal, ground fine, and 
mixed evenly with the mass ; when it is shaped iii suitable 
moulds, and dried for use. ^ 

We are induced to think favorably of this method of 
making fuel, as it is probable a small quantity of the last- 
mentioned coal is sufficient, and ^hat no great quaniityf&f 
the, first is requisite j, though this mti^tv^^epend on the qual- 
ity of that material. ': "y'\ 

It is also said, that the shives of flax, op hemp, mixed 
with clay, and dried ^s before mentioned, make good fuel. 

In thi^ same Work, directions are also given lor; jnaking 
fuel- balls, as they are there called, for the purpose of 
kindlipg fires, as follows : Take equal parts of coal and 
charcoal, ground fine ; mix them with clay ; form the mass 
into balls, about as large as hen's-ieggs; dip them in a 
strong solution of saHpctre, and^then dry them j when they 
will be found quite inflammable;' * 

..■.■V^-^-f "' ' ^ '■■' 

FULLER'S THI|TLE (Difisacus.) The heads of these 
are used for ^iiising the knap on fiiae woolch clJoths. From 
their present scarcity, in our infant Mani|^ctories, they 
command a great price ; and are, thcrefdrfe'i l^firthy of 
attention. ^ * . ^ 

Sow the- seeds, at the rate of about a ped^ %*^^^ acre, 
About the/irst of May, .on gti^nd proper^ pSI-pa^ed by 
ploughing and harrowing. Keeip down the vveedslp^ hoe- 
iqgj and Jet the plants stand about a foot asunder:' AH the 
rest are to be cut aw6y. Hoe them as often^^|s the weeds 4f 
rise. The heads do not fprm until the second Summer. ^ 
When they are fit to cut, which will be about the first 
of August, let them thea^c cut, ti^d in bundles, airtd dried, 
under ccjiver, or* in the open air, according to the state 
of the weather. 



FARMER*s ASSISTANT. 121 

The heads have sold, iti'our Woolp^'/Factories, for a cent r 
a piece ^^ and sometimeb double that price. An acre, at 
thisVate, would athount to several hundred dollars. 



A -' 

GARDENS. These are distinguished into jthe flower- 
garden, the fruit-garden, and the kitchen^garden. We shall 
say nothing of the flower- gatden ; for farming has nothing 
to do with flowers; but ^he fruit and^kitchen-gai^ens are 
somewhat more substantial. 

It is beft to have the fruit and kitchen-gardens in the^ 
same enclosure ; but the plan, too often observed, of blind- 
ing them together, in too great a degree, ought ttof be 
a'i^idcd, Fruii-tr,efcSj which make considerable shade, must 
bennjtirious to the growth of vegetables in the same neigh- 
borhood ; and ought i^herefore to be cuUivated by themselves. 
Such fruit-trees, however, which make but little shade, as; 
grapes, currants, quincesj &c. may be verv agreeably inter- 
mixed with -te; growths of the kitchen-garaen. i^ 

For tl^Fruit-gaiden, see Fruit-trees, Peach, Apricotj 
Quince, Sec. &c. 

A kiichfn-garden,'^well stored with vegetables, is highly 
important to the Farmqrj^ as the use of these supersede the 
necessity of consuming^m^ich. meat ; a practice equally in- 
consistent with economy anir^ilh good health. When we 
perceive that the food of the Cottagers, of Ireland, is prin- 
cipally milk apd* potatoes; that these ar^ a, race of People 
which are health^, robust, well-madie, with strongf, ^uick, and 
ardent powcr^S mind ; apd when we perceive that those 
savage r^ion^^hich, foi^ wj^^nt of other food, are obliged to 
subsist en^rely on fish or oilter meat, are generally the most 
|tupid, squalid, and ill-made; ,we certainly cannot draw con* 
elusions in (ayor> of eatmg great quantities of flesh. 

It is Iqvitkble (o have a .dose high fence round youi* 
kitchin iri(d fruit- gardens. This, in the first place, renders 
4 every thing within it secure from Pillagers; and al>o serves 
l^to keep out fowls. Another benefit, consists in keepini? oft' 
tlie strong cold winds of the Spring, winch are ytry injuri- 
ous to the vou^g plants, and also to the huit, which is ihea 
abnul putiii^ forth. 

Dung that is old, and destitute of the seeds of weecjs, 
ought only to be used in manuring a kitchengardenv and 
th^ ground ought not to be plougbedj but deeply dug, for 



122 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 



#., 



r; all vegetables which rppt deeplfW the ground. Nothing 
further need be said, with regard to the kitchen-garden, 
than that^ loose mellow soil, wjtH a sou^^erly exposure, il 
the bestpTt^at^^jit ought to J^e kept rich; that,^|is fast as 
weeds ris^i-^thry ought to t#^extirpated ; and that no weeds 
ought to be suffired to gO to seej^vithin the garden. ,. ^' 

if the garden be of a Av'etish or^iff soil, it will be greitly 

'fe^ntfi^ed by being throwii up into high ludges in the Fall.: 

At the same j^me, this will assist in ddsn'oying the seeds 

.^of ,we*eds; but particularly in destroying insects which may 

* be 'breeding Jn the soil. 



GARGET. 5^e Np AT CATTLE. 

GIG!^) Little tu^iors, or blaaders, filled with matter, 
found in the mouths of Horses. The cure is c,|fected by 
sliting, them open, and then washing them with salt and 

vinegar. ^ ^, 

GLANDERS. Commonly cdA\edXhe Horse- distem^r. 
It is always accompaixied with a discharge of matter trmti 
the nostrils, and a swelling of the glands und£r the throat 
and tongue. When the bones in that part become carious, 
it is generally injgurable ; and this may be kttown by the bad 
smell ;Which is produced in such cases. The U-^atment 
recommended in Gibson's Farriery, for this diseafe, whire 
in iig. first and second stages, is to niake use of purges, 
diaphGretics, and roweling in the hinder "parts. V^^e imagine, ^ 
that roweling in the breast will answer the same' purpose. 
See Roweling ,, ■-. 

To clear the nostrilsi, Gz6s<m recommends passing the 
fumes of burnt bri|ij,stohe, or burnt leather, into the nose • 
of the Horse, andj^after the matter has been discharged, to 
syringe his nostrils withi brandy ot red wine. Afterw'ards, 
he says, a small quantity of Unqu^ntum E^fitianum^ dis- 
solved .in oil of turpentine, may. be injected ^^rough a large 
pipe, lor the purpose ot cleansing the ulcerated parts. 

GOATS. These animals^fe* hardy, aiid rather more ^ 
prolific th'an Sheep Tli4 Kiosf^e apt to poison thpn^elves 
by eaing the evergreen shrub, called laurel (^id0^J if 
they can find it.. These. are excelent for the, table ; and ^ 
even the old ones^, are tolerably good eating, and are gene-^ 
rally weU filled with tuUow. The milk of the Goal, of 
which they give a. greater quantity than an^r^gther animal 
of their size, is good to mix with v^at of Cowsy in making 
cheese. It is also much esteemed in consumptive cases. 
Their skins are much more, isiluable than those of Sheep, 
being nearly as btrong as that of the Deer. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. ]23 

Goats are very useful jajit^ew fartnsf,. as they serve effect- 
ually to destroy all spro'uts and bui^iS^ei^ Thty are pecu- 
liarly exlelent io^ destroying shrub oak bushes, us clvese are 
naturally hard to subdue. '-. 

GOOSE. See Poultry. W 0^, 



GOd^EBERRY ( Ri'b'es Grossularia ) This species oL 
the currant rtq^SjIr^s about tiie saihe sou and culture, tha?^ 
is required tor tife-commonred or vvuite cerrjint. 

See Currant, - ^' 

A v«Ty good wuie may be- made from the gooseberry, ^and 
varieties may be produced of this plant, by sowipg the seeds 
in the same manner as is meBtioned of currants. 

Mr. Forsyth observes, ihat^' by mixing up a rich soil to 
plant those in that have^heen ratted from see d?? and by 
waterln^^nd thining^he fruit, tl/ey have grown much 
larger than any ever before seen in England. He further 
observes, that great attention, should be paid to ther^jparly 
and late sorts; that, where they run up to long'naked 
s^itns, they shoiild hQ cut doivrij which will make them 
throw out good bearing shoots;*' and, in that case, his cojn- 
position must be applied. There ar6_ other observations 
made by Mr. Forsyt/i, on the cultur^f this plant, which 
are here omited, us not being considered of any material 
consequence.' ' ^ 

■ -' „i;- ' ■■- 

GRAF:|;iNG. Mr.* Forsyth describes several methods 
of gratii%.: n, ^ 

As, first. Graftin^^fi the rind^ which is proper only for 
large trees. , "^Ift^ ~ 

Secondly. C/f/r-^rfl/<:£^f which Janswers well on small 
stocks or limbs, and has bfeen ' nioStly practised in this 
Country. ^/ ^ % 

Thirdly, ffhi/i-grafting, ov tongue graftitigy which is 
also prpper fipir^&mctil stocks only; and, as Forsyth says, is 
the most effectual of any, and the most iii use m Great- 
britain. ' :^i 

Fourthly, Inarching^ or ^graf(i?ig by a/i/iroach,' This is 
.ione where the slock to be -gratted ort, and the tree from 
which the graft is taken, stand so near together that they 
may be joined, ; 

Forsyth says, that grafts, or scions, should he cut%ff 
from the trees before the budsi^ begin to swell; that, they 
should be laid with the cut end downwards, and buried half 
their leAgthv,in earth, having the tops coveredi''With litter, 
to prevent meir drying too much ; that they should be all 
ot the growth of the fot^mer year; that they should always 
be taken from hfealthy, fruitful trees; for, if taken from 



124 FAR^MtR^s ASSISTANT. 

sickV ones, the grafts often p^i^t^J^ of the distemper; that, 
if taken from young luxuriant trees, they may produce 
luxuriant shoots; but will not be so productive, as those 
taken frail> fruitful trees; that those which are taken from 
lateral, dWibrizbntal, branq^es are to be prefered to those 
of th^, strong perpendicular shootsj and that Hone shgiul4 
be tak^ from the sprouts of tree^' * ^ - *• 

-i. Mr. Forsyth prefers the ivhifi-g^fafdng^ for .common cases* 
1^(, for these, Mr. Deane prefers the cle0gtafiing. This, 
lie says, is mo%t commonly practised in this Country, and is 
attended with success. It i^. done, on the stocks in the nur- 
sery, or on,^e small limbs.,of trees. The proper ^ekson 
for it is just^^fore the leaves begin to open. The head 
of the Slock must be cut ofF sloping, and a slit made sloping 
the opposite way, deep enough tp.^eceive the scion, which 
should hi cut like a w§dg€, with tl^ outside thii^er than 
the inner. The rind of the scion mcRt exactly joirf*ihe rihd 
of the stock. The slit should be opened by a wedge of hard 
^voodj.the scion should then be gently put in its place and, 
the stock closed. AUer this, the .whole thu it be daub^ 
round closely wiih a mori^r made of a mixture of loam 
anti.fresh horscdung, so as completely toe^iclude the access 
of air; and this mort,^r m^ust be suiruunded wit'h a winding 
of taw, or old clolh^,^to prevent the rains Washing it away. 
The scion shouldi|be covered nearly to the top with this 
mortar;^ and it should also extend two or three' inches 
downwards round the stock. 

In place of this mortar, Forsyth recbmrnendska plaister 
made of pitch, turpentine, and beeswax, which is in like 
manner to be daubed closely rotind, so as to exclude the 
external air. The mortar, ho^#ver, if well made, and 
well applied, will answer very well. It should be composed 
of fine loam, not clay^j' because clay will contract and crack 
open, when dried. < -^v 

Cleft-grafting may be successfully perforrbed on trees, 
where the fibre of the outer bark runs round%: suph; as the 
peach, plu^i, cherry, Ecc by fi;st»Vuting through that bark, 
vith a knifes, at the pl^ce where the cleft is to be made, 
ai>d iiij liie same direction it may; be expected to run; when 
the rest of: the bperation ,may be;^ as easily performed as on 
other trees. 

W/'ifi- grafting is performed by cuting off the head of the 
stock sloping; then making a notch in the slope, from the 
upper part downwafd, a little more than half an inch deep, 
to receive the^scioh, >vhich must bp cut with a slope up- 
ward, and a slit made in this like a tongue, which is to be 
inserted into a/slit m^de in the slope of the stock; and the 
scion- is then set in^ so that the- rinds of each join exactly 
together. The scion is then fastened by a ligature to keep 



FARMER'S ASSIStANT, 125 

It steady, and then surroiS^'d with rig^^ar, or the plaister, 
as before<« t-^ . 

Grafting in the find is performed by cutmg off^the stock 
square i bUting clown the bark a. small distance, aft^ raising 
it up, so that the end of the sc?0p may be inserted beiween • 

it and the wood: The scipn is made with a shoulder;, cut 
in aboufc 'half its thickness, and the other half is -sloped 
off gradually, so^as to givait the form of a wedge; the cut-^ 
side being flat^l the bark-side unt6uched._ This wedge 
or tongue 4s insie'rted under the bark, withnhe shoulder 
fited to the stock; the raised bark is then pressed close 
and Wund round, and the plaister is appli*^ as before 
mentioned. It is usual, in this ca$e, to insert tnree or four 
scions in one stock. ** 

Mr. Frestonyoi Pennsylvania, says he has. grafted scions 
which C4|Rie from Holl|Lnd, which were apparently dried, 
and they grew; but thait he failed in other instances, where 
the bark of the scions appeared to have become somewhat 
roten. He was /also successful in grafting scions, of the 
ajmietree, as late as the; twentieth of June, when the leaves 
of the trees were full prrown. 

See further, Inariching and Injioculating, for the me- 
thods of performing ihese operation^,;,. 

IBRMNHOUSE, or granary. Ifthe Farmer think 
proper^ build a grainhouse, which is v^ry useful for In- 
dian corn in particular, the best method of keeping rats and 

f mice out'bf it is, to set it on blocks, covered with flat 

^ stones, large enough. to project four or five inches beyond 
the bfo^s, on every sidf^ To prevent the blocks from 
roting at the bottoms, they Sight to be set on stones, raised 
a little above ground. It i^ a good plan to have a grain- 
house and carriage or wagonhouse built together; the upper 
part tor Indianicorn, and oiher grain, and.the le^wer part for 
wagons, caris,,^loughs, &C. ^c. ^' 

X^'^ Some-.Farrti^rs make provision for a pUce to k6ep their 

^^'Indian corn in their .barrfs,N which is a pretty go,od plan. 

The place .for this is a floor, raised on a second set of 

beams, w^h rest on posts set in the beams, next below 

p the platies *6f the barn. In the middle of this floor is a 
hole, through which a tackle is suspended, and the corn is 
raised in .baskets and spread a proper thickness over th^ 

^ floor. Such a^lloor in an ordinary-sized barn would proba- 
bly contain'tbree hundred biishels. At the proper season, 
the corr^%^,thrown down on the barn-floor,,; and there 
threshed bur with flails, or\with a threshing-maishine, which 
is better, and is then cl^iijifd and put into bins made for the 
purpose on one side of the barn-floor. 
See Barn. ^' 



^- 



126 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 



i^ine bins must be made tighf |f hard plank, sufficiently 
tliick to prevent the rats from gnawing through them ; and 
the lid to each may be fastemd down by a clasp secured by 
a padlock; This plan is equally good for keeping wheat 
and other grain. If the ^ain which is put into these 
shoulcL|ieat, it an be shoveled out upon the floor, and there 
stired%bout until it is sufiicien% dry to be returned into 
the bins. The method of ascertaining, whether grain has 
become heated in the bin, is to run a stick to the bottom; 
let it remain^here ipr a quarter of an hour; and in that 
tinie, if there be any heat innhe grain, it will be commuai- 
catfed to th^ick. -v t^ ^^ * 

It grain B^kept long in safcks, its heating may be pre- 
vented by frequently turning.j^em, first on one end, and 
then on the other. isj^ 

GRASSES. iSome of these are^st calculated^-for moist 
or wet soils, some for dry, and some for the different 
climates in wbidh grass is cultivated!, Sonne again are best 
lor pastures, and some for mowing. Tbe different kinds 
which are most valuable arp here noted, together with iM\v 
proper soils, 8cc. 

MexdoW'C xTST\]:LyTmot/iy grass or Herdisgrass (Phleum 
Pratensis) is the ^s(Ss most used for hay iff the Northern 
States. U is also erroneously called Foxtail; but thisjj^ 
another grass. The catstail ha^ a long head^ someWhat W- 
sembling the tail of a cat, with very fine seeds ; the foxtail 
has a short bushy head, more like the tail of a fox, with 
coarser seeds. In other respects, they have conViderable 
resemblance. i0 ' - t:^ 

Catstail grows best in a rich ^o?s^ soil; but it w-ill grow 
well, f^r a few years, in a r'lz^ wet or in a ricb arable soil. 
In the fich wet soili;llt gradually lessens in product; while, 
at the same time,=4t gi^'^s way to wiW grasses. In the rich 
arable soil, it gradually faifs, by reason of ^- ground be- 
comiagfound and the sward thiokiened withf^her grasses. ^ 
Probably, if it were wtll torn fvitli the harrow every'iP^ 
Spring, end not too closely pastured in the Fall, and none 
in, the Spfing, it would grovy Wreil for many yeap in such 
soil. By|close pasturing in' tii^;Fall, it is apfiloi,.be torn 
out by the roots, and by cropfeg it again in the'Spritig, ^ 
it suffers. greatly. 

, It will yiel^ one-half more hay, when not pastured. at all, 
than when pastiired closely in. the Fall, and again in the 
Spring. Ill the richest soils, and when not pas|yred, up- 
wards of tour tons may be had trtrfti the acre^-in-a season, 
at two mowings. Cattle are tiiot quite so fond of it in 
pastures, as they are of clover; btit, when made into hay, 
diey eat it very readily. It is not so much a ferulizer of 



# 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 127 

land as clover: On the%C(5hirary, it binds, and somewhat 
exhausts, the soil. It is perennial, and v«lll last beyond the 
memory of Man, it not destroyed by close pasturing. The 
proper time for mowing it is, when it is in bl^om, or a 
little later. ' -tt"' W% 

From the trials made in Greatbriiain, of this native 
Ameriqjin grass, it is hd-^ever i^sserted, by Mr Curtis^ to 
possess no excelence which is not possessed, in an'equal 
degree, by the ^m . i». 

Meadow FOX^iL (Mofiecums 'Pratensis J This j^rass 
is much cultivated in Greatbriiain. It is an early:%rAss, 
and vegetates with such luxuriancy, that, according to Mr. 
Curtisy it may be moVved tliree times a year.^'he British 
Graziers consider it as one .of their best grasses, parti- 
cularly for larger cattle. :^ The soil ^st suited tor it is 
moist meadow*land, or that which is oc1:asionally over- 
flowed; though it will grow well on almost any soil, 
except those which are very wet, or very dry. Linnceus 
states it to be a proper grass for .grounds whic^i^aye 
beeti drained. - 

^t is perennial, and yields abundance of seed, whfch is 
easily gathei:ed. The seed is, however, sometimes liable 
to be destroyed by an insect. .^ i. 

MEADow-FEScuE'^f Ae«^Kca J^ratenffsj is an early, hardy, 
perennial^aa&i ^nd grows well on aiirndst every soil; good 
for hay^or pasture; pro()ucts al^undance of seed, which is 
easily gathered. Mr. Curtis says, it has a great resem- 
blance to raygrass; but if superior to it for fornhing mea- 
dows, as it grows longer and has more foliage. It blos- 
abouj|i«the middle of June,^, 

Darnjel, or RAYGRAssi(^L9/m7w Perenne) is good for 
ari early supply of pasture, as it siaris very early. |t grows 
to the heiglit^viof about two feet, and blossoms tne latter 
end of May.^Horses'are extremely fond of it, when made 
.farly into h^ ; and for-Racehorses, particularly* has been 
found vpref<|r^e to any other hay. It is,, however, apt to 
run too mticlh to stalks, in most soils; and then cattle dis-- 
like it in pastures. A naturalsort of raygrass is mentioned, 
as havin^been luely cultivated in Greatbriiain, which is 
much supl^ior to Hie sibVt usually cultivated there. 
5*?^ fur'h' r. Qui'c/igrasS. in Weeds. 

Crested Dogs r ail ( Cijnosurus Cristatus) is good for 
upland pastul?^?, and is a wholeiioine food tor Sheep, It 
forms a thicU turf, and blossoms ^bout the middle of June. 
It abounds with seed, which is easily gathered ; but care 
should t{e;|^Jien, that, it- be fully ripe, as otherwise it will 
sometimes^il to grow. It is suitable for dry, sandy soilSj 
and will not thrive in wet meudows. 



128 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

Meadowgrass (Poa PratensiqJ will flourish well even 
in the driest soils, and will endure drought better, perhaps, 
than almost any other grass. It makes fine hay, and is fit 
for earljg^ting. It is also good for early pasture. It 
yields fPSp of seed ; but X^ is difficult to sow, on account 
of their filaments causing 'tliem to adhere to each other. 
To r^edy this, it is recommended to put them in newly 
slacked lime, to separate them, and then to be fubed in 
df^ sand. ' ^v,^ 

Vernal or^ Spr^nggrass (Jnthox AhtHum Odoratum) 
is a very early grass for pasture, and grows in almost 
every situation i though not eqiTally productive in each. It 
is an ordorifj^yous grass, and is recommended by some to 
be sowed with oth^ grasses, in the proportion of about 
one eighth for meacJtiws. It is not very productive. 

Meadow Softgrass ( HoUus^Lanatus) j^rovt^ well on 
atiy soil, not too dry and barren. k||i is belt calculated for 
Sheep in pastures. It is injurious to HorsesJ when made 
into hay, by produciqg a profuse discharge of urine, and 
general weakness ; which may, however, be re'ddily remov 
ed by a change of food. It is not a very early grass. -^^ 

Sheeps FESCUE ( Festuca Ot^inaJ grd^s well in dry,. 
saiiSdy soils, is very good tor Sheep, as they are fond of it, 
and soon fatened with' it. It is perennial, and flowers in 
June. ' ;-' " . ■^._, ,^ .Z^:';. .. 

Hard-fescue (Festuca Duricuscida) flourishes, ip al- | 
most ever/ siiuaiion, wet or dry, and blossortis in June. It 
grows luxuriantly at first, often to the height of four feet; 
but it soon becomes thin, and disappears after a Vhile. It ^ 
is best for mixing with some oth^; grasses. ,^^ 

Annual Meadowgrass fi*e>&./^«nwa^ is in flower 
throughout the Summer. Cattle of every kind are fond 
of it. I| is recommended fofMilCh-cows, oa account of its 
affordinpr butter of a very superior quality. 

RouGHSTALKED Meadowgrass (^Poa TriviaUs ) resem- 
bles the preceding in its appearance, and iKi flowering! ^^ 
but is best suited for moist or wet meadovvsv It is very ^ 
productive, and good for pasture or hay. It is, however, 
liable tp be injured, says Mr.^CMr;is, by severfiiClod, or 
excessive drought. ^ 

Fowl MevADoavgrass ( PoUAvcpria, S/iicalis Sudbff^risJ 
was first discovered in a meadow, in Dedham, and was 
supposed to have been brought there by water f6wls, says 
Mr. Deane, It is an excelent grass for wet meadows, and 
has been known to yield three tons of bay to an acre, in a 
season. It remains so long green,; that it may be mowed 
at any 'time f^om July till Octobet-v; It makef' very good 
hay for Horses, and Neat-cattle particiilarly. 



# 



J'ARMER's ASSISTANT. 129 

Flatstalked Meadowgrass (Poa Comjxressa) flou- 
rishes in dry soils, and flowers from Jun.3 to Au^^ust. Dr. 
^wi/erson esteems this as the most valuable of all the 
Poas. It forms a fine turf, and imparts a delfcjate- flavor 
to the flesh of Sheep and De^, which animals are very 
fond of it. . ^ V 

Silver Hairgrass (Mra Caryofihyllea ) is most suita- 
ble for "sandy lands, and is recommended by Mr. Stillingjiei^" I 
for Sheep-walks, on account o^^he .fineness of the mutton ^ 
of those Sheep which are fed on' it. It flowers in July. Mr. 
Stiliingjleet applies the samcorfemark to the waved mountain 
fiairgrass (aira Jiexuosa) which grows in heaths%nd barren 
pastures, and is in flower from June to j^gust. 

Bentgrass ( Agrosds Stqlonifera ) '^his grass, which 
IS commonly called the FioHn, is a nati\^e of* this Country,^ 
as well as of others. It jgrows abundantly in that part of 
Ireland which is contiguous to the Giani*s Causeway ; ^and 
also round Logh Neagh. 

Mr. Green says it grows in great profusion in the island 
below the city of Albany. By chemical experiments, it is 
found more nourishing than any grass known. 

In the jOrcheston meadow, in England, it has yielded 
nine tons to the agre, in a sea^onj. Its bulk, when growings 
docs not seem greater than that of some other grasses ; but 
it is uncottimoqly. heavy. ^j 

Sheep and Neat-catile are very fond of it. Wherv given 
to the Cows, it increases the quantity, and in^proves the''^ ^ 
quality, of their milk. It grows as well in the/ shade a^s 
elsewhere, and may be grown either trom the seeds, (^ 
from th^^strings or runers % the grass; and from these 
latter it is most readily cultivated, as they will take root j 
at each joint, with a slight covering, after. they appear. tq be 
perfectly life^Iess. 

The method commonly praetieed, in Ireland, for rearing 
it, is to cut the strings in short pieces, stiew themi evenly 
over the groiintf;' and cover them with suitable eartii, or 
with compost, 'as the nature of the ground muys^quire: ,/? 

After which they are to be kept clear of weeds, iirtSi such 
time as the,<|||ting growth hasi got a sufficient hoW of the 

til; when it will cover the/gfound thickly, to the exclusion 
every other grass or weed. 
^, Mr. Peters, of Pennsylvania, is successfully cultivating 
*his grass, arid from his (communication^ we derive most 
of our inform'ation respecting it. By his trials^of. ir, the 
dry uplands of this Country arp not well calculated tor its 
growth. ^W.. IP^ '■-'' '.*'■■' 

It delights in^^ moist Wft^^t fioil ; thrives lyel)^ .eve|i pn 
wet boggy lands, and covers them with so tough a sward, 
that learns may readily go on the,m. it is dso well suited 



130 farmer:s assistant. 

to lands which can be irrigated, or to such as can be ovci'" 
flowed. .^ , 

It isJid^a fit grgsS' to be connected with any alternate 
husbairory^ as, after it h£^§ goten complete footing in a 
suitable soil, it is hardly to be eradicated. This we, how- 
cver^^onceive to be no objection to its culture, in all lands 
t,q which it is properly adapted; for, if more of these be 
found on any farno, than nnay be thought expedient to be 
cultivated with it for tnbwing-groundsj it will be found 
equally profitable for pastures. 

It is longer in coming to maturity, than other grasses; 
and, for tnis reason, is mowed in the Fall, in Ireland. 
Here, it would probably be fit for the sithe in August. It 
is more troublesome to mow than other grasses. When 
dried, it is first put into very small cocks, and afterwards 
into larger ones ; but in these^ must not be tramped 
down; and in this situation may remain exposed to the 
weather for months, without essential injury. Its small 
bulk, in proportion to its weight, renders it much less ex- 
pensive to keep under cov^r, than the hay made of other 
grasses. ^ 

It would seepd, th^re are several varieties of this grass; 
and, probably, that cultivated in Greatbritain is superior, in 
product, to any found here. Mr Peter's says, the strings 
of the liorin found here are not so large as those brought 
from Ireland. In his last communicatioh on the subject, it 
appears that the product of his hay, of this grass, was at 
the rate of four and a half tons per acre ; but this is on drj5» 
upland. , , ** 

Mr. Clifford had, for the iffrst cuting, on upl^d in his 
garden, at the rate of three and a half tc^s to the acre. 

For the greater quantity of nutriment contained in fiorin, 
than any other grass, see Nutriment of Food 

We are, on the whole, folly of opinton, that a great 
acquisition to the wealth of this Country v^ill be found in 
the extensive culture of the fiorin, whete lands are best 
adapted to it. 

GuiNEAGRAss ( Patiicmn Maximum ) This grass was 
first brought from Guinea,;^tnto, the island q| Jimaica, and 
is highly extoled \i^^^\xf'W3hsards^ in his History of 
Westindies. v' ' 

We will give the Reader the account whidh Mr. Oglesby^ 
of KentucKy^ gives of its product in Wilkinson county, in 
the State of Mississippi; and from this, and from the cer- 
tificates of others, it will be seen, that it nj,ust become pro- 
.^ ductive oi immense advantage to the southern part of our 

•■^ territory, and perhaps to every part of our Country. 

< I have (says Mr. Oglesby) been accustomed to both 
timothy and clover meadows, and have frequently assisted 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. iSi 

m. cuting some of the best in the State of Kentucky. At 
Percyfitild, near Fortadams, I cultivated a In of Guinea- 
grass, somewhat less than a quarter ot an acre; from which 
I fed SIX or eight Horses, during the Summer of eighteen 
hundred and twelve. I planted it in the second Week in 
May, and began to cut it the 2bih ot June, and cut ii five 
times before the 15th of October, and obtained from each 
plant (which occupied 4 square yard) about sixty pountj^^ 
•f green grass. ' 

» I have frequently observed it to grow fotir inches in |ti 

twenty-four hours. From the astonishing growth, and fronn 
the result of all my experiments, I have no hesitation in 
saying, that it will yield ten. times as much as any timothy 
or clover meadow I have ever seen.i^; k is now (1 5th 
October) as green as it was in June ; and animals are re- 
markably iond a||:it, both^ green and dif. The hay is ex- 
celent, and cures withofcdifficuUy.' 

Mr. Bronaugh says it will produce more ^than slx^mes 
the quantity of any oth^r grass he ever knew. Mr. Robiti' 
son says, * on the l6Ji Juiy> 1812, I weighed the first cut- ^ 

ing ot one plant of G-iineagrass, which was thirty pounds.' 
The cerdiicaie of Mr, Green is of similar import. Dr. 
Browrif oi Natches, who turnishes J^he ceruficates, corrobo- 
rates them, and considers this grass of immense importance 
to the Country. • ,,^ 

We can see no reason ^^if it caMiot be cultivated in 
every part of this Country to advantage; notwithstandiiig it 
must be planted yearly, it being killed by the frosts. In 
countries where frosts do not prevail, it is perenniel. Dr. 
-Browffltsays it is best adapted to a rich moist soil; but will 
grow to dd vantage on anyi?" v / 

Tall OAXGkA^s (Avena^filaiior) flxjwers in Juute and 
July. It grows very la,rge arid coarse, ^nd makes a pretty 
good hay; though Horses are not fond of it. In point of 
excelence, J^% Curtis ranks it next to foxtail. In pastures, 
it should bel|fesely fed. It yields plentifully of seed. No 
doubt, a little salt applieit to the hay made of this grass, 
when laid down in the mow, would be a great improvement 
to it. It isalso called Orc/jarc/^rass. 

Mr. Mumenberg^ of Pennsylvania, recommeilds this gra?s 
* very highly, as one of the b'est he had ciiltivaied. It woufd M 

probably answer well for soifing, as it starts very early and 
grows very late. 

Yellow Qatgrass (Avenp, Flavescens) is ^Iso a coarse 
grass, which, thrives in rrieadows and pastures, and on 
hills of calcareous soil, where it floi^ers in June! and July. 
Though tolerably sweet, it is less relished by Cattle than 
the fioas and fescue grasses; though Mr. Curtis saysj it 
promises lo>m^ke good Sheep-pastureso 



132 FARMER^s ASSISTANT. 

Yarrow (Achillea Millefolium) is highly recommended 
by D'. Anderson^ as biing one ot the most valuable plants 
growingju Gieatbritain. It thrives well on moist loams, 
and on .pPdriest soils, and ^ill be found green when other 
grasses are parched with (Jrought. Every kind ot xattie 
are fond of it. Tht- sttcds are gathered in October. It 
flowers in June and July. 

It is a mistake, however, to rank this plant among 
gi^asses; and its superiority has never been discovered in 
this Country. 

RiBGRASS (Plantago Lancoljxta) has been considerably 
propagited in Yorkshire (Greatbritain) where it is held in 
estimation. It is best adapted to rich sands^and loams, and 
on poor sands it answers tolerably well for Sheep, It is 
not liked by Horses, and is bad for hay, on account of its 
retaining its sap. It is said, by ,,^cirron 'Mailer^ that the 
richness of the milk, in the celebrated dairies of the Alps, 
|s owilig to the Cows feeding on this plant and the lady's 
manthe (alchemilla vulgaris ) Its seed is, plentiful. 

Cocksfoot ( Dactylis Glomerata) js a Coarse grass, and 
grows with luxuriance. Ic suits all kinds^of soils, but those 
which are very wet or very dry. It is recommended by 
Mr. Pacey^ who says it'^ffoxds an abundimt crop; springs 
early ; yields abundance ot seed ; makes excelent hay ; and 
is very p^ermanent. ^It flowers in June. Where it grows 
on rank soils, however, or in coarse patches^ eattle will not 
eat it. V y 

Blue Dogst ail- grass (Cynosurus CoerulmsJ is the 
earliest ot ail the. British grasses, and flowers a fortnight 
sooner, than any other. It is^' hoi^r^ver, not very productive ; 
but may be useful in Sheep-pastiires, in high rocky situa- 
tions, where there is but little soil. 

0/ Aquatic Plants, m^ hi ch are useful in Culti-qationy, are 
the folldiving : "JV:' ^ 

. Flote-foxtail Y '^^^Z^^^"^"* Geniculatus J grow^ in mea- 
(i!t5#s 'Oh the Severn, where other good grasses are expeled 
by reason of wetness .and inundations. It is a good grass 
tpr hay, and flowers in May and June. It is recommended 
for newly- reclaimed morasses, and lands recovered from 
the sea. ' . ^ " ' ,;. " 

,Flote-Fesc;ue . (Festuca Flidtans) will gVbw in still 
Weier grouiKls than the^^orf-yb^iriazYf. or, rather,' may be said 
to be anr»phibioiis, growing as well in the water as other- 
wise. Ii flowers in June, and is a constituent part of the 
celebrated Orcheston meadow, in Greatbritain. Horses and 
Cows are very fond of it. It springs early, and promises to 
be useful for the game purposes as the last- mentioned grass. 



FARMER*s ASSISTANT. 133 

The Chedder and Cottenham cheese owe their excelence 
principally to this grass, and to the 

Water hairgra^s (Aira JiguaUca) which is further 
s^id to coniribuie much to thi^ fine flavor of the Cambridge 
butter. It generally grows ia the edges of standing waters, 
and flowers in June apd July. 

Reed Meadwograss ( Poa Jiquatica) is one of the 
largest and most useful of the British grasses, and forma 
much of the riches of Cambridgeshire and other counties 
in England, where draining meadows, by wind-machiHery, 
is carried on. It is godd for pasture and hay,; particularly 
for Milch cows, though it is not relished well by Horses. 
It is strong and well suited to low places which are liable 
to be inundated/ It grdws to the height of siX' feet; but 
should be mowed when about four fe^et high. It may be 
mowed several times in a season. - 

It grows plentifully^ in the marshes q| Sandusky-bay, 
River Riiisin, Detroit, and elsewhere, roiilfd the #esterly 
pan of Lake Erie, where it is the principal reliance for 
pasture and hay. Xhe French Farmers there cut it, and 
bind it ii^^undles, when dried, wbicfi seems to be similar 
to the management of it in the parts -where it is cultivated 
in Greatbritain. 

In addition to the JVaturdl Grass^J here enumerated^ a« 
Tjorthy xi^cdlture-t are several Artificial Grasses^ or Vege- 
tables wfiieh are cultivated as such; among the most valu- 
able of^hich are the folloiving: 

Lv^eHne f Medicago ^Sativ,a^[) This grass was irttroduc- 
ed from France into GVeatbritain, about sixty years 'since, 
and is very highly esteemed for soiling; though it makes 
good hay, Jf cut while quite green. 

Mr. Liviiigstqn has made considerable trials of it in this 
State, afi^'^^e products have, in some instances, b^een 
greater tha|pthose mentioned by British .Writers. With 
the best cCiitivation: and plentiful manuring, from six to nine 
tons of hay, per acre may bciliad in a season, of this grass. 
Twenty jpounds of seed are. requisite for an acre, if sowi? in 
th6 broad-cast; or six pounds, if drilled. If cultivated in 
the flatter way, it is to' be ploughed and hand-hoed tliree or 
four times in the season ;; but perhaps the broadcast is- the 
more profitable culture here, where labor is high. ': 

Mr. Y.oung recommends it to be sown with' oats; first 
sowing and harrowing in that grain, and then: sowing or 
drilling in the lucerne, and covering j^ lightly with a 
Jight harrow. Others^ihowever, advise, that the ground be 
previously well prepared by deep, frequeht, and effectual 
plou^hings, and thut the seed be sown jj^y itself; and, as it 



hk. 



134 FARMER'S, ASSISTANT. 

Is essential that the ground be well seeded, perhaps this 
is the better way. 

Mr. Livingston sowed it in the fore part of September, 
after a crq|> of early potatoes, and found it to answer very 
well. If the ground be prepared for it by Summer- 
fallowing, it may be sowed at this time. The essential 
points in preparing the ground are, first, to manure it well, 
and then lo have it frequently and deeply ploughed, knd 
weU|pleared of the seeds^ of weeds. 

^idry loam, sandy or gravelly loam, rich sand, or other 
good dry soil is suitable for it. It is said to grow well in 
the coldest climates; but those which are mild arc most 
suitable for it. It is a very early grass, endures drought 
well, and grows very late. Probably our dry warm Sum- 
mers are more favorable to its growth, than the cool moist 
ones of Greaibritain ; and; thai, for this reason, greater 
crops of it may be raised here. W^^rcre ground has been 
well prepared i6v a crop of fldX, this grass might be sowed 
to advantage immediately after that crop. ' 
See Flax. 

During the first season of its growth, the {^(^uct will 
not be so large as afterwards: In this season, too, when 
cultivated in the broadcast, it is most infested with weeds, 
which are most easily d^estroyed by frequent Rowings, for 
'the purpose pf soilings^ The mowings may be' as often as 
the grass Will fill the sithe., During this season, too, it will 
be much hurt by being pastured ; but, after this, it may be 
fed without injury. 

Sometimes this grass becomes diseased and turns yellow: 
In such case, let it be mowed imiiied lately, and it will then 
start as fresh and green as ever. " ^ 

Mr, De La Bigarre says, th^t, after this grass has stood 
two or three seasons, it should be well harrowed early in 
the Spring; and if the roots are considerably torn, by the 
operation, they will not be injured. This should be re- 
peated every second Spring afterv^ardsj and at these times 
the ground should previously have a good top dressing, 
whicK will be well mixed wi|h the soil in the operation of 
harrowing. The dressing should not be of barn-dung, but 
some manure, oi' compost, free of the seeds of weeds. Bog- 
dih, bog marie, vniud, &c. are good for this purpose. f'sLet 
gypsurn also be; applied evQry Spring; but not before* the 
harrowing) as this manure should never be buried in thQ 
soil.! , > ' ' • , . 

Mr. Youngs of Greatbritain> makes a computation of his 
expenses in cultivating an acre of this grass, in the drill- 
way; and, after deducting the expCRses and rent of the 
ground, i!ythej and rates, he makes the clear profit 9/. 18«. 
4flf. sterling,' ; 



^A 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 135 

Mr. Livingston has alsa made a similar computation, 
of some cultivated by him in the bro^d-cast; the result of 
which wa? not very far different; though the value of the 
crop was, in this case, set much lower than that put upon 
it by the former Gentleman. 

This grass lasts about ten years ; when the ground should 
be ploughed up; and it will then be found very rich, as the 
crops do not materially e^chaust the soil. 

It is believed that, for soiling, in particular, this grass 
will be found more^productive and profitable than any 
other, where the highest cultivation and a suitable soil 
are given to it, and ,,whe,re the climate is suitable to its 
growth. ; ' 

Mr. Young says, that, for' fating Bullocks, and for pas- 
turing Swine, this grass may be very advantage'ously used. 
Where it is made intoiiay, let it be cut while quite green, 
and made wi^put much shaking about, as the leaves fall off 
considerably, when dry. A little salt added to it, when laid 
down in the mow, would no doubt be a great improvement. 

Saintfoin ( Hedysarum Onybrychis) will grow very 
well on dry stony soils, that are unfit for any good cultiva- 
tion, and will produce on the worst lands a ton of hay, 
beside considerable after-math, in tfie season. On good 
dry lands, the product will be much larger. It may be 
used for soiling} during the forie-part of the season, and 
mowed for hay in the latter part, ^he hay will faten 
Horses considerably, as is said, without the aid of oats. It 
increases the quantity of the milk, and some say of the 
cream also ; while the butter is improved in its color and 
flavor. ,■■: 

Saintfoin rejquires a sdH' free' of the seeds of we«ds, as for 
lucerne, and the ground should be well mellowed by deep 
ploughings. The sfeed may be sown with the drill, or in 
the broa^-cast; three bushels being allowed to the acre in 
the formec method, and at least four in the latter. The 
seeds shoi^ld be /rc^A, and sown early in the Spring, 
Those which have a bright husk, a plump kernal, which is 
bluish or^jgray,^ without and greenish within, are the best^ 
It is believed to be the better method to sow from one to 
three bushels of this seed, with abovjt five pounds of com- 
mon red-clover, to the lac re ; as the clover serves to keep 
down the weeds till the sain<foin has become well, rooted. 
The seeds may;be "sown with oats or barlfey. 

During the first season of its growth, no, Cattle 'sbould 
feed on it; nor should Sheep, during the second season. 
At the end of six or seven years, and alterwards, the 
ground should have ^uch top-dressings and harrowings as 
are directed for lucerne ; and let gypsum be also applied^ 
every ot;her Spring;, 



136 farmer;s assistant. 

If the first season for mowing prove wet, let the crop be 
left for seed. It is at no time to be cut before it is in full 
bloom. 

Burnet (Poteriuth Sangulsorba) is mostly used for early 
Sheep- feeffing; though it may be advantageously used for 
soiling cattle; as it is hardy, is little affected by drought ur 
frosts, and will even vegetate in^ moderate Winter- weather. 
If reserved for hay, it must be cut early, or it will become 
too coarse. It requires a dry soil, and may be sown with 
the^xiU, or broad-cast. It is essential to have good seed ; 
for-^mich purpose, a proper spot for raising it should be 
selected. 

When a- crop is designed for seed, let the ground be fed 
till sometime in May; otherwise the gras v/ill be too rank 
for seed. ^These should be gathered while moist with dew, 
and threshed out in the barn, as soon as they can be dried 
there. They may be sown ^ny time before ^ugust, after 
the ground has t^een well prepared. The following season, 
the crop is to be^kept clear of weeds by the harrow, and, 
after that, it will grow so strongly as to keep down all 
other growths. i 

CicHORY (Cichorium Intibus) Commonly called ^ild- 
succory, has been but lately cultivated ; but on poor blow- 
ing sands, and weak dry sbils, Mr. Fomw^- thinks it superior 
to any other plant; and thaitVJif sown with b^rnef and cocks- 
foot, it will form a laj^er, for six or seveS^years, far ex- 
ceeding those made of trefoil, raygrass, and" while clovei*. 
It grows more luxuriantly than burrict, luccrne,^or saint- 
foin, and may be often cu% for soiling, during the Suniimeri 
twice during the first season, and three or four times after- 
wards, G»i every second month till October. It may be 
made into bay, which is coarse, but tolerably nourishing: 
Its principal use, however, is for soiling and for Sheep- 
feeding, as it is less injured by close feeding than most 
other vegetables. 

"^v. Young advises it to be drilled at the distance of nine 
inches, on poor lands, or twelve, where the soft is riche«| 
after thie soil has been first duly mellowed. In this case, it 
will be|>g|§^tly iniproved by an occasional scarifying. It 
may alsV'^be sown with oats in the broadcast; but, for 
soiling, it is best- soww ulcne in the fore- part of the" sea^n, 
and lightly :harrowed in. It produces plenty of seed, w^h 
is easily gathered. 

Spurry (Sfiurgula Arva^isis) has been considerably cul- 
tivated in Flanders, on account of its growing very late in 
the Fall, and^even during^ Winter, and avFording good food 
for Sheep and Cows. Cattle a^'e very fond of it. It flowers 
from July to September, and is best suited to sandy and 
other xlry soils. 



FARMEtl^ ASSISTANT. 137 

The "Bus^^H^VETpH (Vicia Se/iiumJ is^saicl to shoot cafUer 
in Springs than any other artificial grass. It grows iate in 
Autumn, and, in Gr^^tbritain, retains|Hs verdure 'tiirough 
the Winter. - 

Mr. Swayiie states the amount of its producey per acre, 
to have been about twenty four and an half tons of green 
fodder, equal to about four ajid an half tons of dry hay. 

The culture of this plant was long since recommended 
by jinderson; but the principal difficulty seem^^ito be in (Col- 
lecting the seeds, as the pods burst when ripe, and tlitis 
scatter them before they can be conveniently gathered.' 

Dr. Withcrirhg also obsiferves, that the seeds arevoften de^ 
strbyed by the Yankee qf a- specif^ ot ca(^/a6w6r. ^v-. 

Tares (Vicia Sativa.) ,.Oi tli^se there are twjEi^v^rietieSi 
the Winter and -Sy^nw^^, Tares. VjiV. Livingston maije-some. 
ti'ials of the latter, which were not very successful. 

The Spring-tare is to be sown as early ii) the Springs as 
the ground can be well prepared, anxl the Winter t^ire early 
in September; each at the rate of about eight or ten pecks 
to the acre, broad cast, or .about half that proportion for 
the drill. Each kind is good for feeding cattle of every 
description, partieulat-ly the Winter tar^, which, ia Great- 
britain, comes into use just as the turnip-crop is exhausted. 
This plant is not prog^ier for making into hay, .being greatly 
injured by v/et weather, and rejquiring more than common 
pains to dry it. "^ The seeds of t!ie djfTcrent kinds must be 
carefully kept apart, as thiey cannot be disijipgulshed from 
each' other. 

The HROADLEAyED-vEjTCHi or Everlasting Tare 
(Lathyrus Latif alius ) was long .binci.^ rtcommeitdeii^by 
Dr. Anders.ony di's promising to afford "largt^ crops of hay 
and grass.. It is eaten eagerly by cattle, and olien grows to 
the height of twelve feet. ^^ 

The Xufted-vetch, or Tare (ViciaEracca),2iKi-Am^ 

considerable: i^eigh', and produces abundi^nce of leaves. 

This sort anliJP^e ivood-.vi^ich f vicia sylva^ica) vvhiqh ri:it3 

l^from two to tour feet._high, are sa^i to resiore weak or 

starved cat^j^l^feponer than any other vegetable kno^vn. 

The ST^^Sfc'LE-vETCH f /.a//iz/rozV/^.9j haji' been strongly 
recommenJ^ed by Mr.r4//zO£-, as alfjiding a tender and 
agreeable food for. ^heep. 

Of Clovers, the most valuable kinds vjhich are knoiun and 
cultivated-, are the 

Trefoil, Qr Coj.imon Hed-clo^er .(' T?ifolium^Fra tense j 
which is commonly cultivated in this Siate. It grows iv^pll 
on all dry 'sofis. About ten or twelve pounds of seed are 
requisite for an acre. It is sown in this Country with barley, 

1? •^ 



138 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

oats, or Spring^'Wheat, when that article is raised; or it 
may be sown with Winter-wheat in the F*all, if the land be 
dry and warmly exppsed ; or in the Springy w.hen it should 
be lightjy brushed or harrowed in. 

The product of this grass, when well manured, may be 
tour tons to an acre, at two mowings. It is peculiarly ex- 
celent for forming, a Tay for a crop of wheat; which may be 
sown to great advantage on the clover-sward, when proper- 
ly turned under. AH kinds of cattle feed and thrive well 
on It, either m pastures, when soiled on it, or when fed on 
the liay. For feeding Swine with the hay, howeve*', it 
should be well saved, early cut, and steamboiled before it 
is given them, and in this way it will keep them in good 
condition through Winter. 

'"*11ed Perennial-clover, or Cowgrass (.Trifolium Me- 
ditm) is cultivated in Greatl?ritain, in almost every kind 
of good uplarii! soil, even in heavy day-lands. It is to be 
sowed in the Spring with oats, barley, &c. It is also usual 
to sow it there, as well as the common red«clover, with 
the crop of flax. It rarely, succeeds when sown by itself. 
It produces abundance of seeds, which are easily col- 
lected. 

Hop-clover (Trifolium Procttwden^j grows naturally in 
Greatbriialn, in dry meado,^s and pastures. It is recom- 
mended by Mv. Amo$ for laying down land to grass, by 
mixing it with the clover last mentioned, and the 

White- clo5?:er (Trifolium I^e/ie?is-J This grass grows 
spontaneously on dry uplands in this State, after they have 
been manured with gypsum, or with bog-marle, &c. It is 
a very sweet grass for pasture or hay ; but not very pro- 
ductive. *^it is generally short-lived; but may l^e made to 
last longer, by passing a roller over it; for, where the 
stalks come in close contact with the ground, new roots 
will start and descend into it. It is cultivated in Great- 
britain for Sheep-pastures and for other uses. It is most 
useful in mixing with other grasses, for the purpost of^ 
thi^k^ping the growth at the bottom, and thus increasing 
the Vppduct. 

After having sa'td thus much of each particular kind of 
grass, something remains to be said of them in general. 

It may lirstly be observed, that in laying dqwn lands to 
grass, of every kind, the work should be done effectually. 
The ground should be made mellow and fine ; the seed 
should be clean and good, and sowed evenly and plenti- 
fully, and lightly covered, and the ground made perfectly 
smooth, panicularly where it is intended for mowing or 
&pili^g, 



FARMER^a ASSISTANT. 139 

The Graziers of Greatbritait^i in laying down their grass- 
lands, make use of ntiuch more seed than is usual Wjhis 
Country. Whether they use more than is profitabfif'ex- . 
periments alone are competent to determine. Let one rod 
Squjre of ground, -^perly prepared, be laid down with 'a 
given quantity of seed ; another square rod with a greater 
quantity, and another with a still greater; then carefully 
gather and weigh the product of each square rod separate- 
ly; and if that^which has most seed has an inw^ase' of pro- 
duct sufficient to pay for the extra seed, and about t(rty 
per cent more, that quantity of seed may be most advisable 
to give the ground. ^ 

In the same way, it may be ascertained, how far it is 
profitable to sow the ground with different kinds of grassei'if, 
in order to increase the product of the whole. "^This is a 
matter that is much attended to in Greatbritain, as will bfe 
seen by the following directiorts^of 'Mr. Young- and ^^r. 
Toilet, for laying down particular soils to grass. Thus, Mr. 
Young dire ets for an acre of clay-land, the folbwing grasses 
and proportions of each : "^ > 

Of Cowgrass, five pounds; trefoil (commori- red clovtr) 
five dp. ; dogstail, 10 do, ; and of fescue and foxtiiilj one 
bushel. ;, 

For an acrebf loam, of white-clover, five pounds; dogs- 
tail, ten do.; ray^, one peck; fescue, three do.; foxtail, three 
do. ; and of yarrow, two do. 

For an acre of sand, of white-clover, seVen pounds; 
trefoil, five do.; 'burnet, six do, ; ray, one petk; and yar^ 
row, one bushel. 

Mr. ro/Zer, directs, that, for an acre of such dry light s^il 
as is adapted to the culture of turnips, the following pro- 
portions of seeds be given. 

Of smoothstalked poa or meadowgrass, six quarts; ray-^ 

grass, four do.; dogstail, six do. ; yellow oatgras's, four do. ; 

cocksfoot, two -do. ; vernalgrass, one do.; CoWgrass, three 

do. ; white.cl6v^r, two do.; ribgrass, two do. ; and of yar- 

frowj* two do. 

Again, fpr such soil as is of the moister kind of upland, he 
allows, tor an acre, ot foxtail, six quarts; roughstalked poa, 
six do. ; mfeadow-fescue, six do. ; snioothstalked poa, four 
do.; raygrass, two do.; vernalgrass, one do.; Cowgrass, 
three do.; white-clover, two do.; ribgrass, two do.; aind of 
yarrow, two do. 

For firm low lands, liable to be overflowed, he allows of 
foxtail, 2 pecks; meadow-fescue, two do,; roji^hstalked: 
poa, two do.i' raygrass, one do.; vernalgrass, dhe quart; 
white-clover, two do,; Cowgrass, two do.; and of ribgrass, 
two do. 



140 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

„jj' ■ 
^*^Where the #ater lies Ibn^^r, he directs the corftpb^itW 
to be^s fellows : "' ' "' ''^^ 

dl roug:hstalked poa, two pecks ; fox'tail,"tAvo dcr. ; meap 
do^fescde, two do.; Hole foxtail, thtj^e quarts ; and ol, 
flote-ftscue, four do. And, for sjtuaftioriS still more Wet, the 
ioUowing: Of roughsialked pi^a, two pecks j foxtail, two 
do.; flote foxtail, :.one 'do ; and"6t flote-iescue, one do. 

The abbve are given merely as specimens of the quanti- 
ties of seefe:ad vised to be apportioned td different soils, 
and*of the several kinds which ore deemed most suitable to • 
e^ch, in Gwatbrit^in ^ Our Summers bein^- Warmer, and 
dur atmosphere less mom, it dqes not lollcnv, thUt the 
same sons ot grasSies, or the sanie proportions and quantities 
of tt>e seejis of each, would here be found most proper 
in similar gbiis. These are matters that are proper subjects 
6f inqiiiry with the ingenious/and experimental Parmer. 
G#brally speaking, it is believed, that the British Farmers 
and Gfcsziers ^ive^their grounds more seed than will be 
found necessary iathis Country, whatever may be the case 

in Greatbritain. 

■« -• 

GRAVEL. ISce Earths. 

GllEEN;PRESSING, Turning under a growth of green 
vegetables, for the purpose of manuring the soil. Buck- 
wheat is much used for this purpose. Sow-it in May, about 
half a busbeF^^'o the acre; and, when in blossom, run a 
roller over it, fexactly in the way that it is to be ploughed 
under. , i^fter it has beph all turned under, let it lie about 
twenty days, or ii' month, by which time it will be rbten, 
and fit to be ploughed again to receive the grain intended 
to be sown. To increase the growth "of the buckwheat, and . 
of course the quantity of manure, let a little gypsum be 
strewed over the ground, ii it be suitable to that manure. 
E^ven to wet buckwheat, intended to be sown, and then 
strew on it as much gypsum as will adhere to the gcains^ 
will make the growth of it considerably larger.-, ^ 

A green-dressing may be useful to a crof< of wheat, 
\Vhereihe land is Summer-faliowed, and at the sanie time 
is in poor heart. Lundsi, however, which are stiitable for 
gypsum, are most eabiiy recruited by th^ free use of that 
manure and red-clover; but, where the soil is not asssisted 
by that manure, or where it cannot be procured on reason- 
able terms, greerj'dressings may be "found a useful part 
of husba4^ry. 

GREENS. Potherbs, ppper for boiling when young and 
tender, for food in the Spfihg. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT/ 141 

Spinagc, sown ya the\|Fall, affords a plentiful supply of 
these : So will the common turnips; French turnips, 1?^, Sec. 
But the Farmer ought to supply himself, iu dddifipn to 
these, with at lea^J<one good bed of asparagus. 
- , See that aPti^p 

^vThc plant, whim is commonly calle^ poke weed f/ihyto-; 
hctaj is a yejy fine green^ when it first starts up in ihe 
Spring, and uiitil it gels to be about a 'foot in vheight. It 
might be well to keep a small patch of grqUhd isown with 
it, as, after it has oftce got into the ground, it will start up 
every Spring from the roots. The same may besajd of,the 
tops of the plant which is comrnonly called milkweed (as- 
de/2/as J which are :also very fine. > 

See jiilLKWEED. : 

The. sait/ia fialustris^ or marsh-marygoldj growing abund* 
aQtly ili mae^^ places, makes an excelent green in the 
Spring of the year. 

GREEN SCOURING. A dificase to which Sheep and 
Bullocks are often subject. It is cured by^verj'aice : A 
%Vineglass-full, for a Sheep; a pint, for a Butlock. Ver- 
juice is the juice of the English crapapple. Our crabapple 
is of a different kind. The juice, however, of sour unripe 
apples, of t% common kinds, may answer in place of ver- 
juice. 

GRIPES. A disorder, of the choHc kind, with Which 
Horses aiid sometimes horned cattle are troubled. It gen- 
erally proceeds from wind pent up in ^the stomach or 
bowels, and is caused by a high state^ of cpstivend^s. 
Horses and horned cattle have been known to have the 
dung within them so hard and dry, that it could not be 
voided without assistance ; and this assistance is by clearing 
it out by hand. After it has in this way beien principally 
cleared out, clysters are to be administered, which will open 
the passag^^d of course give vent to the wind. 

See furthi^r^ Neat- cattle, for the particular treatment 
of the disorder in them. 

GHOVES. These are both ornamental and useful. To 
plant heights of ground, the sides and tops of which are 
generally not very good for tillage or pasture, adds much 
10' the beauty of a landscape; and is at the same time 
highly useful, as it regards the quantities of firewood which 
may be' produced from such spots. Planting-^^s of trees 
alorsg highways is also pleasant for shade to tne Traveler, 
and profitable to the Owner of the soil. The same may be 
observed, in regard to lanes, and to passages from the high- 
way to the mansionhouse. Sugarmaple-treeS; planted round 



142 FARMER'S assistant: 

the borders of meadows, and.somelstraggjiing ones in them, 
are very pleasant and profitable, as' they do no injury to ttie 
growtli of the grass. Wherever trees can be planted in 
pastures and along fences, without doing injury to the 
growths of the adjbining fields by their shade, this part of 
rural economy ought never to be qjmited.^ , 

The shade of sotne kinds of trees is much more hurtiiil 
to the growth of plants than others. ^ 

< I planted niaize (says Mr. Livingston) on the west side 
of a young wood, consisting of oaks, poplars, a few ches- 
nuts, and a large mulberry ' somewhat advanced into the 
field. The shade made by the rising sun extended nearly 
across the field, and was not entirely off until about ten 
o'clock. I r^marked^ihat, as fari^s the shade of the chesnut 
reached, the qprn was extremely injured; it was yellow and 
small; The chonical shape of the morning-shade from par- 
ticular trees might be traced a' considerable extent, in the 
sickly appearance of the plants. The blackoaks were like- 
wise injurious; but less so than the chesnuts; the poplars, 
very little so. Near the mulberrytrce, the corn was cover- 
ed by its shadfe for a long time every morning ; and, though 
not so large as that which had more sun, maintained a 
healthy appearance.' 

The shade of the blackoak is' particularly hllrlful to the 
growth of wheat; that of the locust is, oh the contrary, 
beneficial to grass-grounds ; and that of the sugarmaple 
does but little injury to the growth of grain, and none to 
grass. 

'0UINEA-CORN fJ^o^cMs S/iicatus.) This plant is 
considerably cultivated in Sduth-carolina, where it is esteem- 
ed for its seed when ripe, which commonly yields from six- 
ty to eighty bushels to an acre; and the growth is mowed 
while green, for the purpose of soiling cattle ; for which it 
is very good, and abundant in its product. 

The seed is used for feeding poultry, Sec. and when Hull- 
ed, which is there performed by beatinj^ in a mortar, it is 
nearly or quite as palatable as rice, when boiled and eaten 
with milk. ^ 

The crop is sown in drills. It does not exhaust the soil, 
if cut while; green, and if the stubble be then ploughed 
under it rathfer assists the ground. It requires a rich dry 
soil. * 

GYPSUM. >; See Manures. 



farm|:r*s assistant. , 143 

H. 

HARROWS Aui) HARROWING. In r«gard to shape,* 
the three- squafT^ harrow is as good as ^yi but let it be 
long and narrow, for stone y or stumpy grounds, and wider 
where the ground is smootii. The essentials for a good 
harrow ai"^, to have long heavy teeth, made of iron, and 
pointed with steel at the ends. Where the land is rough, 
there ought to be fewer teeth than vj^here it is smooth. 
The teeth of the harrow, for rough ground,, ought tb be 
set slanting a little backward, so that it will not get fastened 
on the stones, roots, or stumps ; and, on the contrary, where 
it is ufed for smooth ground, they ought to be set slanting 
considerably forward. 

In stoney rough grounds, harrowing cannot be performed 
to so much advantage, as ot> smooth grqunds; and every 
Farnler ought to make his grounds smootht Two or three 
ggood harrowings may be as good as a ploughing. Harrow- 
ing ought to be performed, on wet ground, in a dry time, 
and in the middle of the day. On dry lands, it is best to 
harrow in the mornings, while the dew is on, and when the 
ground is moderately dry. It ought to be harrowed before 
seeds are sown ; otherwise they will be buried of unequal 
depth^and will come up in rows; most of the seeds being 
in that case thrown into the bottoms of the furrows. 

On furrows of green sward turned under, the harrow 
must be loaded with more.than its common weight, which 
in all cases opght to be pretty heavy, and run lengthways 
with the furrows. Where seed is sown on ridges, the har- 
row oUgKt also to be run, lengthways. Perhaps, in such 
itases, it is best to let the larid remain in the furrows, as it 
is left by the plough; the se^d, in such cases, being usually 
H ploughed ^n. 

Harrowing meadow lands, where tbey become bound, or 
where they become cold and mossy, is of essential service 
to them, and will, make them produce much more largely 
the following years. The best time to do this is in the 
Spring, while the ground is soft. If the meadow be too 
wet, however, for Spring- harrowing, it ought to be done in 
the drier part of the^ Full ; and, in such case, if a dressing 
of Horse or Sheep dUng, mixed with sand, be laid on, pre- 
vious to the harrowing, it will be of essential set-fee. 

Harrowing wheat and rye in the Spring is considered, by 
♦European Writers, to be very beneficial; but doubtless this 
ought to be done very carefully, and it is advised,^by some, 



to ^ FARMER'S ASSI^ANOJS 

^'' 
tjiat a roller ^afterwarc!%rpassed over the ground, t^^x 
the plants which may have, been di^turbea by this. process? 
5%#lso, Spiky ROLLER. 

yARVfiSTTNG. In addition to the wheat and rye- 
harvest, in this Country, we have the Indian corn harvest. 

A general rule, as it regards wheat and rye, is, that the 
earlier eaqh is harvested, and betbre the grain has become 
hard, the whiter wiH be the flour, and the ihiner the skin 
of the grain; but the whole weight of the product will be a 
little less, than, if the grain he harvested later. Probably all 
that is gained by late harvesting is an addiiton to the skin 
of the grain, „x,, 

When a s^verec^ight or ru^t^has struck wheat or rye, it 
should be cut immediately, even if the grain be in the 
milkjr* state; and it should lie on the ground, bui riot so 
clos^ as to injure the heads, until such time as the stalks 
hav§ become dry and the grain somewhat hardened. Then 
it ought to be bound up and put in shocks, and carted in 
as soon as it is sufficiently dry. The later wheat and rye 
are cut, however, the easier it v/ill thresK; but^ at the same 
time, there is greater ^waste by^the shelling of the grain, 
in harvesting and cartings it in. 

As soon as Indian corn is ripej it should J^e harvested; 
buv while the> stalks have any ■ -greenness, the crap cannot 
be said to be fully ripe.. If the corn is m^^rely toped in' the 
field, not air cut up by the roots, while green, it is advisable 
to gather the ears, cart them home, and husk them pttt by 
night; by which means time is saved, and by which, also, 
the hubks may be^saved, which are very valuable Tor fodder 
for Cows, Sec. , 

,: If Indian torn be killed by a frost, it should be immedi- 
ately cut up by the roots, before the leaves have had^time 
to wither, ^nd set up in shooks, haviog the jLops tied to- 
gether to keep out the rains. In this' way the ears will 
ripen, in the same manner as when left to ripen on the 
stalk. This, , in most cases, is a good practice, where n6§ 
lra$t has injured the crop; as in tliis w .y the, field is clear- 
ed of the corn in time to plough and sow with wheat,' and 
at the same time all the leaves and st.dks are saved for 
fodder. ^By this method, also, tlie ground is less exhausted 
by the crop. 

•HAWS OR IIOOK^j. This is an^enlargemcnt of. the 
tnembrane over me eye of a Horse, atid is caused by fevtr; 
and fever,- as ^ir. FcCers observes, 13 often occasioned by 
too high tcediiig and pampering this animal, as he had ex- 
perienced, by the inattention of his Scrvunt in this parti- 
cular. V 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 145 

On his Horses being^t^s' affected, the Servant was for 
applyinj^ the usual remedy of cudng out the hawsj||which 
Mr. PetevM would not suffer to be done, as Iioraes;l|l pften 
deprived of sight by the operation. He found an effectual 
and speedy remedy for the disease, by feeding the Horses 
* entirely on raw fSitatbes. ^ 

HAYMAKING. If a meadow is to b8 mowed twice in 
a season, the first Crop ought to be ctit earlier than where 
mowed but once, ift order that the roots may recover im- 
mediately'and be ready for vegetation afresh. Where the 
grass is cut later, the vegetation of the roots stops for some 
time. The ^rass, however, which is tfc^cut early will not 



be so heajiry as that which tecut later'^ipt ^iil shrink after 
cuiing; but the roots wilf^ot be so much exhausted, and 
will afford a .larger crop the nex,ptime of cuting, or the 
next Summer, if cut but once in a seasons >^ 

The best time for cuting herdsgrass, where but one crop 
is cut in the seasoo, is when the seeds of the grass have 
formed, but before they have become|fuHy ripe; but, as 
Farmers cannot cut all i^heir hay in a fid^y or two, it is 
g^^necessary they should begin before this time, that they may 
not «nd too long after it. The samei^time is also proper for 
cuting clover^ or rather when a part of the heads begin to 
turn brown. Fowlmeadow or birdgrass, may be cut much 
later, without being hurt by long standing. We have seen 
wirpgrass mowed on the clay lands of Coxackie, in the 
month of October, for the first time in the season, ard it 
then mad^- tolerably good hay. Lucerne, on the contrary, 
must be cut while entw'ely green; otherwise it will make 
but poor hay. The same may be dbs^ved of , all wild 
swamp- grasses, and of the high coars^^ grasses which grow 
every, where on the vast prairies, that extend through the 
western parts of the territory of the Unite^^vStates. 

For haymakings it is essemial to have dry weather ; and 
the prospect for this ought always tfi be an object of aften- 
tion with the , Farmer. Frequently, the change and full of 
the moon pFDduces an alteration of the weather, either for 
th^, better or the worse; but there is n^p certainty in, this. 
As a general rule, the weather between the change and 
the full may be expected to be the best. Sometimes rainy 
spells of weather kst for weeks, during hay-time; and 
during §uch spells it is sometifnes as well for the Fi^rmer 
to let his grasis stand untouched, until the indications of the 
weather becoftie more favorable,, %|fe 

See Weathe^r. " ,^ '^m- 

Some methpdslare recommended for making hay, which 
are more tedious and vmorie expensi^ than the common 
method, and^ on that account, so much the worse, if In 
% V, 19 



146 FARMER'S ASS^SJANT. 

Qther respects tUey ar6 better. Jkit| where labor is scarce, 
time is every thing, in « makifig^ay while the sun shinfes,' 
and th^^temethod, in which it can be made with most expe- 
ditioTi, i^ht to be prekred. 

The best plan, therefore, is, for the Eai-mer to be at his 
mowtng betimes in the morning; cut down as much as « 
possible by nirife or ten o'clock, by which time jiiie dew will 
be off; then spread the mowed grass evenly, and about 
twelve turn it over where it lies thick; in the afternoon 
rake it into winrows, shake it up lightly, that it may be 
better exposed lo the ail^'; towards sundown miike it into 
neat small cocks, and ler it remain so a day or two. If it 
be not then suffiQ||nily dry, shake it out again on a small 
space of ground, atS^^iturn it o^ till it is dried; then cock 
it again, if necessary, and as^on afterwards, a^ possible, 
draw it in. / 

But, in order to save much trouble in drying hay, the 
application of from four to eight quarts df salt to the ton is 
recommended: It is found that hay, thus salted, can be 
well saved in a mu||h%reener state, and at the same time 
the benefit which fne hay deriY|s. from the salt is more 
than fourfold its %lue. 

Tht5 method^also, ot^having a hole in the middle of large 
mows, niay be found well worth attention, on account of its 
obviating the necessity of so much labor in drying hay, that 
is to be stowed away in such mows. 
See Barn. 

General Stnithy of Suffolk, ,|nakes use of a /i07*siera/<:^t, for 
raiding on his smooth mowing-grounds, whicK, with one 
Man, a Horse, and a Boy to ride the Horse, will gather 
hay as fast as sixx ^len in the ordinary way. The rake is 
about ten feet long; the teeth about two feet; and at right 
angles from these 'pm some upright slats of the same 
length, set, at |M;,lc>wer endf into the piece into which the 
teeth are morti|l!^ and into amother light slender piece at 
the#p. ^:^r '''^'''' ^,.,, ' 

The teetli, when iWoperatioti, run along the ground 
nearly hofizontally, with thC; points a little the lowest, so as 
to run under the hay, and as they take it up the upright 
slats retain it till *the rake is full, when the Man w!io 
follows it behind turns it over, and thus empties it in a 
row; then lifts its over the, hay, thus emptied, and sets it 
in beyond it; and so it proceeds on, till tt Js agam filled, 
and the same process is again repeated. 4 ■ 

When one, strip across the piece is thus raked up, the 
Horse is ,l3|^ed around, and another strip is raked in the 
same manner, emptying'' the hay at the ends of the last 
heaps raked up, so that in this way winrows are formed. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 147 

When it is thus raked into winrows, it is draged upby the 
rake into bundles, large enough for making into cq9k 

Those who nnake use of smooth pIoughing^!(Hws for 
mowing-grounds, or have smooth gieadows, will do well to 
attend to this iabor saving implement. 

HEDGES. For making these, different sor^^ of trees 
have been used, and the hedges have been made in differ- 
ent ways. Some have pretered planting the hedge on the 
top of a fc«pk, thrown up for the purpose ; while the more 
modern method is, to plant it on the surface, without any 
bank. This latter method is the che|j||£st, and, as is ob- 
served by Mr. Pickering'^ of Massa^fflMptis, would seem 
to be Jthe only proper metl^j in sumlS^pily suuations ; as 
in such the ditch, to be made foBjjKaising the bank, ma3f 
form, a channj|l .lor carrying off miR water, and thus be- 
come liable to be cut into a deep gully, to the uUiqaate 
ruin of the hedges ^* 

In level lands, |iiQ we ver, a hedge s|t^ a bank, properly 
made, would seem to be most formicldl^ to catile; but the 
bank we should prefer vifmild be one raMed between two 
small^ditches, and made in the manner d&scnb^ under 
Fences. ' A bank of this descriptK^^H," after'uaving served 
the purpose of a tehee, with the aid of the additions there 
described, may, in the mean time, ha&^ the young hedge 
coming to sufficient n>aturity ; whence ^^additions, first 
madis4br pomplffting the fence^ may be taken away. 

\y^e.hav9,'at tlie same tim(§ no doubt that a good hedfb 
may eventually be made, in dry level lands, withoutihe aid 
of a bank; t>ut in wet or meadow-lands, which are not 
natural to the growths of upland timber, we should advise 
to have a bank sufficiently raised to<^Jay the ground dry; 
unless willow, or some other grov5?th suitable to a wet soil, 
is to be used for making thejiedge. ^Si^^' 

We have seen the Washington-thorn (v^ae^s coi^faj 
planted in Maryland, without any ^Mjk, on uplands; Some 
of which were sufficiently dry, aiia some were#)aturally 
wet; and the result, as far as ^ur observations extended, 
■went to show that thorn, of that species^at least, requires a 
bed of moderatfcly ^ry earth j and that it does not flourish 
in wet soils. , ^ 4 

This remark Js here made^frdrm^a belief that thorn, 
adapted^o th(S ^mate^^ is one of the i?no4t valuable trees for 
making hedged; th^t every species of this tree requires a 
soil laid sufficiently dry, it it be not naturally Mg^and that 
it should not be deficient of a considerable degreS^f fertili- 
ty, either natural or acquired. 

Where hedges are to be made of this tree;, without be- 
ing set in a bank, ws should advise to the method pursued 



148 FARMER*^ ASSISTANT. 

By Mr. Quincy. of Massachusetts, which is, first, to culti- 
vate tl^^t^rouf)d, intended for bearing the hedge, with pota- 
toes ; tli^g it properly manured, and kept clear of weedsj 
£s this, or some sim'lar preparative, i^ calculated to form a 
bed of the most promisitig n^tur^ for the future growth of 
the thorn, when set out; and also, for forming a sward of 
gruss on e^ch side of the hedge, whet) such should be farmed. 

The sward sliould not approach "the young trees too 
-closely at first; but a small strip, in which the trees stand, 
should be k*^pt clear of grass and \veeds, ih orde^/ to accel- 
erate tiie growth of the trees; and, where this part lies 
niuch exposed iOj,^^wa!shed by heavy rains, it should be 
covered with sma||^TOnes, or olher^vise, until such time as 
the sward may i^^diately Ijj^Tound the youngs growth, 
without its thereby reccing essential injury.. ^' 

Tlie advantage to be^ferived from keepin^oung trees, 
of this or any other description, free from grass and weeds, 
about the roots, is to enable them % start with more vigor 
at fiisi; for, after t^ir advance in gvtjt^th has become 
more established, ^the wider extepsioil of the rooU, their 
future growth w|| not be so muW impeded by the incum- 
«brances%f we^s' or grass, which at first may prove s<x 
troublesome. ^ "^ , "^ii 

When the plants'of thorn are about two feet high, they 
should be set out ia|a single row, oti the bank, or on t»he 
surlace, as ihe^asFmay be, at the '"distance ot about eight 
inches apart, and beded in good mould. _, 
%Ir. filler directs that, bdfore transplanting, they shiiuld 
be cutfcff at the height of about eight inches^ from 'the 
ground; and that, after having had a years growth, they 
should be headed down, similar to the manner directed by 
Mr. Forsyth. 

See Fruit TREES, j^ 

Which operalfeh will pro^duce a stronger and thicker 
growth. A sufficient number 'of sprouts from this growth 
t re to be trained upj ^^ when they get to about the height 
of six 01^ seven feet, or less where they grow on a bank, 
thCvidji^jare to be cut dowi|;Uo an uniform height, and the 
trees'Wbe trimed, and then plashed. 

Beioie these operaiions, we will say the young trees ex- 
!iibit an appearance something like the foUpwing : - 



W 




FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 149 

< And when trimed, and plashed, they will stand somewhat 
after this manner : 




In the plashed state, as thus exhibiied, the young trees, 
after having been headed down, as before mentioned, are 
supposed 'to send out at least two sprouts from each tree, 
which number, and no more, are to jjjfe ined up, the rest 
being cut away. Of the ^|^ots thu^HBhecl, every fourth 
one is to be left standing erect, and^ine others are'^to be 
bent downv^ai'd, as a,txove exhibitedifend wov*; alternately on 
each side of the ypright shoots, in the manner of weaving 
threads in making^xonSlnon cloth. ^ 

Perhaps it might be aswtll to bend down every other 
shoot, and weave the m^ niong tho?^|^ft upright, in< the 
manner just mentionedSf It would ^Jj^ that the shoots 
thus bent down would, in most installs, require, to be 
tied to the upright shoots, where t^^y crosAhesej' in order 
th^t the fornner might more readily be confined till they 
become enured to grow in that posiiion. 

^or the nieihod of raising ihorn, t&e Tia^RN. 

Such, or sometliing similar, we conceive to be an outline 
of ijfilaking a hedge of ihoin,^^|n the most perfect manner^ a 
work c<immonly easier imagined than executed ;, not from 
any particular difficulty in performing the mechanical part 
of the o|>eratior, ; but, from what too often hajipens, the 
failure of having the young^rowihs exactly as you would 
V ish them to stand and flourish. ^ 

The failure of one or two trees in %^|)lace produfjes a 
chasm in the fence ; and this at fir^st is wly to be obvi ued 
by some tenoporary method of fi|ii||&up the gap; as it npust 
at least require time to make an^iter-growthi^upply the 
place of trees which may be ntissing. ^ ^ 

With all the imperfections,'^ however, to which hedges 
may be liable, we consider them a much safer protection to 
the growing crpp, and, generaHy speaking, less expensive, 
than the wpoden fences which at pfeisent are commonly 
made in this ©ountry., .. » 

Instead of plashing the hedge, a substiiute is recom». 
mended ^ Mr. Main^ of' Georgetown, wiiich he has 
found effectual. This is to cut or trim tli^^op of the 
hedge down to an even height, of about three -aBd a half, 
or four feet, and their to lay thereon light durable fieles, 
tied together .at the ends ; and presently.-; the nevy shoots 



1'50 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 



will start up on each side pf the poles, and thus hold them 
to their places ; while each^tree forming the hedge being, 
in this mapner, mutually braced by the poles, the young 
hedge soon becomes enabled to withstand the attempt wf 
any creature to push its way through. 

The method of filling up any place, where there may be 
a deficiency in a growing hedge of thorn, as directed by 
Dr. MeasCf is to scrape away the ground at such place, and 
if any roots of the growing trees are there to be found, cut 
them off, at the places where you want the trees to stand ; 
and from the ends of the roots thus severed sproUts will 
start up, which are to be protected and cultivated in the 
places where theyijB|||«r. 

If no roots are ^p^ found at^e places where they are 
wanted, take pieces 6^ the roots of the growing thorn, cut 
to the len*gth of about filfe inches, and set thj^se well into 
the ground, wiih the thickest end uppermost, ^at the places 
where the trees are wanted; and T^-oni these upper ends 
sprouts will rise and form a new growth ^ 

The Palmetto Ro^'f Yucca ALo^lia) '\l said to make the 
best hedge that is^^bwn ; but it^U not endure the sever- 
ity of the Winter^f the more northerly States. It is well 
adapted to the iSiore southerly part of this Country. 

Mr. Kirk^ of Pennsylvania, particularly recommends his 
method of making he<^ges. He make^^hem of the common 
Locust. f"' '^ t"-' ■* ^ 

See Locust, 

3He merely makes a furrow, #ith the ploiigh run once or 
twice ea(:h way, to serve as the • bed for the youpg trees. 
These are to be of two years growth when set oUt in the 
furrow; they are to stand at the distance of about eleven 
inches from each other^ and they are to be set leaning, or 
slanting, alternately in ooposite directions, in order to be 
plashed or wove.,togethlr, and tied in that position; so 
that, when the planting and plashing is completed, the 
young hejdge will exhibjdrthe following appearance: 




In four or f^ve years, Mr. JCirk says, the young hedge, 
when thus made, will form a sufficient fence ; and as the 
shade ot locust is not injurious to the growth of the adjoin- 



FARMER^s ASSISTANT. 151 

ing grain, and is even beneficial, to that of grass, the hedge 
may be suffered to grow up as W^ as it will. \Mskm 

In about thirty years after planting, it will reaf^^pe full 
meridian of its growth; when the whole may be cdFdown, 
at the height ot about five feet from the ground, and then 
the stumps, thus left, will stand and serve as ;in impeneira- 
bl© fence for asmudV'as fifteen years more; giving about 
forty years as thQ length of time which that growth of 
locust will serve the purpose of a fence. 

Mr. Kirk says that, on cuting the locust down, a new 
growth of sprouts will start up in abundance; from which 
sufficient may be selected for trainings up a new hedge, to 
supply the place of the stumps wh§^||, they shall have 
failed. ^ "^.^^ 

If the foregoing^ may be s^ely estimated, as the restfit to 
be expected from the culture of #)cusi, for hedges, we 
sljould be disponed to place this tree in the first rank, as 
i^ell for racking hedg« as for other useful purposes. It 
forms a timlDcr of the first rate for* every use, where hard- 
ness, durabihty, and strength are re^uij^d: It is also rapid 
in its growth, and excele^fefor fuel. W- 

We should be disposed to say that #farm of common 
size, with locust cultivated for its ..hedges,'* would" afford, 
ffoni the growth of these, a sufficiency of fuel fop Such 
farm, if managed in an economical way. ^^ 
See Fuel, and Warming ofRoomSi. "^P 
Beside timber for mos<; of the necessary purposes for 
carrying-on the business of the farm. ;;<: ,, »^ 

The li^thod, pursued by Mr. Kirk^ for making the, seeds 
of the ^tust germinatei is to put them in water, hot 
enough to sc?ild a Hog, and to let'them remain in this till 
the water is cooled; when they are to be immediately 
plantefd, in a bed well prepared for the purpose, in rows 
or drills^ at the distance of about %ighte^n inches between 
each drill. ■/ 

The young plants^^ are to be hwjd,. and kept clear^of 
weeds, till the end of the second yWr, and in the Spring 
of the third they are to be set out in the hedge. The 
planting of.the seeds, and the above-mentioned previous 
preparation for the purpose, is to be at the time when 
garden-seeds are usually commited to the ground in the 
Spring. While growi'ng in the rows or drills they should 
stand four or five inches apart. 

Mr. 7az//or, o0^Carotihe, Virginia, makes his hedges of 
cedar; and^e says fhat, in seven years, a hedge made of 
this tree becomes as close, from bottom to top, >|Sf box, of a 
breadth not exceeding tour feet; ^and that it is more likely 
to prove effectual against Hogs, than any of the family of 



1-52 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

shrnbV, as it unites great^density with the exuberance and 
infl^;>cibilny iratural to the it-ee. * 

The boughs of this tree, being pll^t, are easily wove 
betweenl^e bodies of the tre6s, without any bending of 
them, f^r the purpose of plashing. The principiTl difficulty, 
in cuUivating*this tree, lies in making its seeds germinate; 
but, most probably, this could be easily accomplished,^by 
the means just mentioned for the ' treatm'tnt of^ the seeds 
of. the Locust. 

S^e also, Seeds. ^^ - . . \ 

Mr. Peters, of Pennsylvania,- thinks that, , ii> point of 
elegance at least, the common hemlock (Pirius Abies 
Canadensis) is e^|id to a preference to cedar; an(|: that 
it nosscsses quai|^ equally ||aluable, for the purposfe of 
orwa^nrar hedgii^^rand it is for this purpose, particularly^ 
that trees of this descrifition are probably entitled to a pre- 
ference. Whether the hemlock can be cultivated in any 
..other way, thin by layers, we are liable to say. , 
; t. See I^AYERS. , •. ^ , „ 

M.'De Ld i?/^aM^ 'Recommends the white-mulberry for 
hedges, panicularl^n account "l^ -the value of the leayes 
of this tree ^ r feeding silkworms. 

&Ve Silkworms, and Mulberry. 

It is easily raised from the seeds, or from slips or 

cutings. kj ,„ . 

See SLi^find<CyTiifGs. 
' It may be cultivated in hedges, in a manner very similar 
tilpthat for cultivating ihe locust hedge just tnentioped. 

We tttight iurther observe,' that there are. m£ii^4tinds of 
trees and shrtibs, which-inay be cultivated to adv^*^tage for 
hedges; but, perhaps, eiidugh ha^> been said to assist the 
inexperiencbci CuUivator, iu- this important part of field- 
t.usbandry. He will probably find that, in addition to all 
tl>e knowledge^e can .)^rive , from writen essays, on the 
subject, some practical experience will still be found ne- 
cessary, to render hh3i^|plerably expert in the art of making 
good fences, of this desbription. 

HEMP (Caunaks.) This plant requires a mellow dry 
soil, and the richer the betterr It turns to but little account, 
where the soil is not sufficiently fertile. Ii ^ili grow year 
after year on the same ground, and it is not so exhausting 
as some other crops. If the soil be sufi|cieinly rich, it is 
the surest of any crop; it is subject" to nd^'^iseases; severe 
droughts do bat little affect it; and cattle wiU«ot touch it. 
Prom two> to three bushels of seed are requisite for an 
acre; two, where the soil is middiingj and three, where it 
is very rich. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 153 

Where the soil is not vnaturally very strong, some advise 
having two fields for this culture, which are to bear. crops 
alternately: While the one is bearing a crop the other is 
preparing for the ne^t't season, by ploughings and manuring. 
This is productive of an extra expense tor the rent ot the 
land, Sec. but, as veryjarge crops are the essential point in 
making the cuI^Mre very profitable, two years* rent of the 
land may be found but a small drawback in the amount 
of the profits. If, for instance, two acres can be made to 
produce a ton, which shall bring three hundred dollars in 
the^market, and halt that amount be allowed for the expense 
of preparing the ground, and raising and' cleaning the crop, 
the surplus profit would be but' little l^^^ned by deducting 
tlie extra year's rent of two acres. -; , 

To enriclvthe ground, during the alternate years, pejifeps 
t^o successive gieen-dressings of- buckwheat, ploughed 
under, mi^htltie found of considerable service. 
See Green- DRESSING. 

In this case, the first growth might be ploughed under in 
the Sunfmrerand the latter in the FalK.^f barn dung is to 
be added, let it be ploughed under m the Spring; but 
if compost, not until the next Spring, when thevSped is 
abo^t to be sown for the; crop of hen^p; and then let it be 
well mixed with the surface of the soil. Gypsum*/will also 
help the crop, if the sg^be suitable for that manure. 

Let the ground be Wm\ mellowed, by repeat^ ploughings 
in the Spring, for the receptioft of the seed, and let it be 
harrowed before the'^seed is sown, and then harrow xh^ 
seed in. ^ It should be sown pretty early in. th^ Spring; but 
not before the ground has sufficigitly dried and can be put 



in ample ordeng The seed shouw be buried of as even a 
depth as possible, in order that it may all start Equally ; 
otherwise a part of the plants will outgrow and keep down 
the rest. When sown as early as ^ove directed, it will be 
fit for pulling or cuting, about the firsf of August,' the 
time for which bein^^^novvn by the Jailing of the flowers 
and withering of the^lves. "^ '^ 

The male plants of hemp bear the flowers, and the 
female plants the seed. A sufficiency of the latter are to 
be left for seed ; and these will require about six weeks 
further time to rij^en ; the ripeness being known by the 
seed turning brown. The seeds may be gently beat off the 
stalks when dried; or they may be taken off by a coarse 
kind of comb niade for the purpose. The female hemp, 
which has stood to ripen the seedsvjTcquires a Jorf^er time 
to rpt than the male, and when dressed is harsher. The 
better wily is to sow some hemp, thinly, by it^elf^ for seed, 
and then the rest of t^e crop may be all (bulled or cur 
together. 

20 



ISA FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

In the bo^meadows of Orange pounty, the hemp is cut 
close to the ground, with an instrument made for the pur- 
pose jbtff ip uplands, which have any little stones in the 
■way, lit is best to pull it. In cuting, or pulling, each one 
takes a-sjwath wide enough to spread the hemp as he goes 
along. When sufficiently dried, which in good weather 
will require about a week, it is to b^e gathered in bundles 
and bound with straw, and carefully stacked in the field till 
about Christmas. ' 

It is then to be carefully spread on the snow, and, by 
being covered with other snows, it will be t|leached and 
improved in its color. When the snows dissolve in March^ 
it will generally be^found sufficiently rotcd ^ and' is then to 
be taken up and ~^(Bt in small loose shooks in* the field, 
Wbi^n sufficiently dry, it is to be broken with a coai^se 
break, then carried to the barn to be again broken with the 
^ommon flax-break, and then dressed in the irianner of flax, 
but more gently, as it will waste vviifi hard beating. 

The aboVe is the Orange county ^nethod ; but the h^mip 
may be roted in the Fall, and then dressed out agreeably to 
the above directiorts. It may aisp be water-roted, which is 
to be done shortly after it is pulled, and about ^ve days are 
generally requisite for this purpose. When' sufficiently 
roted ini5,5his way, a small handfull may be pulled asunder 
with a llttlei exertion ; and then it .jnust be taken out very 
carefully, so as not to injure the coailJii^and dried. 

The water in which it is Toted Should not run rapidly, as 
such will wash away the coat. Letv the sheaves b6 laid 
llngthways across the stream, and sunk completely under. 
Standing water is good for rotln;^ ; but unless thfe hemp be 
■^once turned, while rotifig, that whicli liev uppermost will 
be roted' most, owin^ to the water near ^e surface being 
warmer than bat below. 

A new method of rot^ng hemp has been compiunicated 
by M. Bralle, as follows: 

Put fifty pounds of hemp, in the syjk, into a vessel filled 
with water, suffieienf to cover th^pierhp, and previously 
heated as 'bigh as two hundred degrees of Fahrenheit, 
and into which has been mixed at least one pound of good 
soft-soap; take away the fire, and let the henpp remain in 
the vessel two hours; then take it out and cover it with 
straw, so that it may cool gradually. The next day, spread 
\t evenly on a floor, and run a heavy roller over it several 
times, which serves to break it; spread it out on the grass 
for five dr six days \6 bleach ; then take it up, dry it, and 
clean it. By this management, it is stated, that one-fourth 
more of cleaoed hemp may be obtained, than by rotiug in 
any other way; t lie hemp is .much sbfter, stronger, of better 
quality; and the process Of cleaning is much less expensive. 



FARMER'S AiSSISTANT. 153 

To make this method ef cleaning hemp profi^ble, it 
must be made a separate business and carried on tiKlMgive- 
ly. Wooden vessels may be used for boilers, and thS^oil- 
ing performed by steam, in the manner described under 
Steamboiler. If a larger quantity ot hemp be put, into 
the boiicr, the soap iritist be proportionate, and more 'must 
be added, as morewater becomes necessary. 

The seed for a crop of hemp must be ot the last year's 
growth 1 That which^ is older will not readily vegetate. 

See Seeds, for the method of malting old seeds vege^ 
tate. ' * 

Some kinds of birds are fond of thi^seed; and must,* 
therefore, be kept from it when so\vri. (^^ 

If hemp be suffered to stand after^Ttfe right tim^S^for 
pulling, the stalks of the male wither and blacken^ and 
then the coat is^ of but little value. Where hemp grows too 
long for dj^essing, it may be cut in two, without any injury. 

Hemp may be made a substitute for flux, tor all ordinary 
purposes; but, in that case* it must be sottened by steeping 
it over warm waj^r, or lye ; and, after it is dried again, 
beating it till it is. perfectly soft. The steeping is perform', 
ed ^, placing it on ittcks, wiihin the vessel, over the water. 
The Steamboiler, just ^nentioned, mi^ht be applied to this 
purpose. , ' "%■> ^ • 

No very particulai^ii?ections are here intended to be 
given, in regard to- preparing the g4*ound for hemp, by 
manuring, 8cc. ; all that will be insisted is, that plenty of 
malitire must be applied, evenly to the soil, of such kind as 
is suitablo to i^, atid that the ground mast be' effectually 
ploughed. >' ^ #" 

llERDSGRASS. See Qrasses. 

HESSI^N-FLY. See Insects. " 

HItDEBQUND, Htorses often become hidebound, wiien 
they are poorly kept, and badly used. In this case, the 
animal ^rows poor, his skin sticks to his ribs, and small 
boils break out on his back. A method of treatment oppo- 
site to that which the Horse has received will generally 
restore hitn;. that is, ke^p and. feed him well, worlt him 
moderately, and loosen his skin by piling it, and using th0 
currycomb frequently, but qot too harshly. 

HILLS:an» valleys. It is found that more rain ialls 
in the valleys than on the hills. The reason of this is, that 
in the valleys the drops of rain having farther to iall^ of 
course come , in contact with^ and absorb more of^ that 
vapor with which even the driest atmospliwre abounds. 



156 FARMER'S 'ASSISTANT. 

If a goblet filled with cold watir be set in a warm atmos- 
phere^^^Xbis vapor will presently adhere to its sides in the 
form OT Vater ; and in the same'way^ it adheres to the drops 
of wate^ in their descent. ^ ^ 

In this, as in every thing else, thfe wisdom of the Creator 
is displaytid. The teinperauire of thi^ yalleys/being wanner 
than thai of the hills, more moisture is Tequired and more 
is given them H.nce, too, the reason why many plants, 
which require much heat, grow best in valleys: They have 
Ihe requisite degree oil" heat, and at the same time a pro- 
portionate degree of moisture. j, But as ail grasses which 
♦are indigenous reauh'e only the heat of the bills, they 
grow as well on tjli^m as in the valleys : • A good general 
rule,, therefoie, iSy the valleys for tillage), and the hills for 
pastures. ,^ • • 

Two other good reasons for this are: Firsftiy, when hills 
are kept in tillage, they aVe generally more or le^s washed 
by the heavy rains, by which much of the best soil is carri- 
ed off; and, secondly, they are always mor^ or less irfd6n- 
venient for ploughingj and generally still more difficult for 
carrying ^ny heavy manures upon themv The above rule, 
howevpi}, is not to be applied to hills;'^f large extent^ and 
moderate descent; it' is, in strictness^.,merely appUcable to 
brokenhills and declivities. >: . 

HOE" AND HOEING. Where the hoe is to be used in 
rough or stony ground, it should be made stronger aind 
narrower; where the ground is light an(J mellQW, itiftay'b© 
broader arid lighter. ^ , '4-^ 

Hoeing, generally speaking, should be merely the finish- 
ing work of the plough or hoifee hoe. Where it is i|sed 
merely by itself, the work is more laborious, and iess 
effectual, as the hcJe merely passes ^ver the surface of the 
ground. It is, however, of great use in killing those wejeds 
which the plough or horse- hoe does not touch, and in duly 
distributing the fresh earth in its proper place near 'the 
plants. Where the plough is not used) the hoe is indis- 
pensable. "' ' ' , ; / ' 

See morp on this subject, in treating of creps that require 
H'oeing. 

HpOSTY. A goo4 sty is of the utmost importance in 
/bating Hogs. Nor is it less important for keeping them in 
Winter; as, the more, comfortably they are kept^ the less 
Nourishment they require. 

The sty should be proportioned in size to the nuniber 
of Swine it is to contain. One of Vixteen feet by twelve is 
probably sufficient for eight fating Swine. It should be 
divided into two apartments; that in the; rear, which should 



, FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 157 



be about six feet wide, should be close, ^nd warmer the 
Hogs to lie in. Jlere they should have a constarfMjpply 
of dry litter, whe,n the weather is cool; for it is an^iPJniial 
point to keep them comfortable T)ie front part oMhe sty, 
which would then be about ten feet wide, should have the 
floor desciending to one side for the urine to rii^n off, and ia 
order that, the lower side may be the repository of their 
excrement; and on this side should be an opening wide 
enough to scrape jt out. 

The tiough should be on the upper side,' covered with 
one or more lids; and upright pieces should be set before it, 
at su,ch distances apart '^s i|iat one Hog only could put his 
bead between any two of them, in oidej/ih^t, while feeding, 
the weaker aninnals should be protectedligainst the stronger. 
The whole should be covered with a roof; for it is esseniial 
that they be protected from storms, while they are in the 
outer or feeding apartments ^ , 

According to the foregoing, if .sixteen Hogs ^^ to be 
kept or fated in the^sty, it should be thirty-two feet long 
and twelve wide,.and in that case there nrnight be^a sleeping 
apartment, at each^^nd. These apartments should again be 
subdivided, in orjbr that, for the quiet of the aninials, par* 
ti^arly in fating, to^o many may not be forced to lie to- 
^eSer. It would probably be best also to divide vthp feeding 
apartment; for too 5i|E||||% Hogs l^ept together are^nbt apt to 
enj^y that peace ah^'qfuiet w^ich is necessary to (Sieir fating 
,well. Tosis should also be set up i^ the siy foF^he .flogs 
5:tb rub tbentselves. ^ ' . *' , ', 

If thirty-two Hogs are to be kept or fitted, then,' perhaps, 
the better way is, to have two stys, of the 'dimensions last 
described, placed together, with a roof; over the whole, and 
,fi passage between t^iem for thie purpose of, carrying food. to 
#|he troughs. . ^ ^ '^ 

>■ The upper part of the sty^ or some part of it, ma^ be 
appropriated to storing the dilfei-ent ariicless of food^Mii^h 
are intended for feeding or fating. If (would be well hfio to 
have the steamboiler under the sanie root. 
For a d^cription of this, se^^.SwiNE. 

If a' part;i5fi;the roof extended considerably beyond the 
sty, it would afford a convenient cover for forming a heap 
of compost from the dung of the Swine. 

HOGS. 5fc, Swine. 

HOLLO W-DRAINS. T>ese are made for Ibe purpose 
of ' making land sufficiently dry, where it is- naturally too 
wet for any good culture. At the same time, they Are cal- 
culated, permanently, to enrich. the soil; as, by b<ing thus 
divested of its superabundant inoist^ire, it is much easier 



isa FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

brought into a state of fermentation, and it retains that state 
a prapp^tiohately greater length of time.,^ , 

It is usually necessary to have leading drains, for the 
purposelJ}|,receiying the water of the smaller ones, and lor 
carrying «• off in such direction as may be found most suit- 
able. Th^ despcnt of the former, as ,well as of the latter, 
should not be too rapid; as, in that case, ther^ is danger 
of the water carrying away some of the earth, which, in 
that case, is liable to collect at certai(> peaces, and thus 
eventually stop up the drains. '.' ^ 

Where the ground H considerably descending, let them 
be carried in an Qblique direction, so as that their desc.e,nts 
will be gradual. T^he leaduig ones should be sufficiently 
large to carry off alf fhe water they may at any time receive 
from the small ones. Let them be from eighteen inches in 
width, at top and bottom, to three fe^t^ and sometimes 
more ; and^^ let the depth be aboUt threes feet, or perhaps 
four, where ihey are to carry off mtich water-, 
. The small ones should be about a rod apart and about 
t\vo feet deep; or, the^y may be about a rod and a half apart^ 
and aboiit thj:ee feet deep. The shallower they are, the 
closer they should be together. Their width should dependL 
on the maimer in which they are to bfe Constructed* {^S 

The b^it method of making the leading grains is, to'nm 
them ahout kalf full with small stoncfS||!, say, f such as wergh 
from one tfo ten or twelve pounds ; ana let these be covered 
with a layet" of such as are small. enough to fill up all the 
chinks; in order tha^, when the earth is ihieown on, it can- 
not fall down amon§ the stones bciow. Then throw on the 
earth that 'was before thrown out, reserving the best for 
the top. 

But it may frequently happen that stones, of the descrip- 
tion mentioned, caniJbt be eonveniently had; and in that 
case flat stones, if they can be had, of bricks, . made for the 
ptjrpb&e, must be resorted to;' and then the construction 
sh(@d be quite drfferent. If bricks be used^ they should 
be- made for tl^ purpose, and effectually burnt; otherwise 
they wnl soon crumble aw4y, and thus stop jap the drain. 
Let those for the bottom be made,, say, eight inC^hes sjquare,, 
and two inches thick ; those for the sides and top, say, 
twelve iflches sq^uare, and of a like thickness. ^t 

The bottom jof the drain, in this case, should be just 
wide enough to build up the brick- work, in the manner we 
shall now describe. First, % the bottom "britk^, flat and 
evenly, on the bottom of the drain; then set up the sides, 
perpendicularly, the lower edges close to the sides of trhe 
bottom bricks, and Testing on the bottom of the drain; then 
cover the whol« over with others of the larger-sized bricks, 
tliriBw in the earth, aiid the drain is made. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 159 

In this case, however, the leading drains should be no 
deeper than the small ones, in order that the lat^r niay 
regularly be carried into the former; and, for this^atepose, 
spaces sufficiently large arp to be left in the sides cTthese, 
for the discharge of the waters of the small drainsjlnio the 
leaders. ; 

If flat stones are 4p be used, the construct^oti^^may be 
similar to the foregoing; or, after the bottoni has been laid, 
the side-ston|s may be set up, say, ten inches apart at the 
Jbottom, and leaning agajnst each other at the top, so that 
tOk aperture thus formed by them will b6%f a triangular 
shapfe. Billets of wood ^ of any durable kind, may, also, in 
like mapner, be used for forming the aperture, as such, 
when buried so deeply beneath the sui^aee,,^ will probably 
last from fifty to one hundred years." ^. 

Where the descent of the leaders is ve^^ry gentle, there is 
no necessity of a layer of brick or stone to form the bottom, 
as in such case thfe current of the water would not wear 
any of the earth away; but, where the descent, is more 
rapid, it is necessary to secure tbe bottom from being 
washed |)y the runing ^Hhe water j^ otherwise t|ie drains 
would soon* become stopetl : And, where the bottom;' is. thus 
secured f^om wearit»g» the descent of the drains may be 
coibslderably rapid, without any danger of being injured by 
the^ waters which pass tht-ough them. irf^^ 

There are severat|Tnethods of making th.e small drains^ 
some-of which are 4nori(B expensive than others. Tfeie more 
expen^ve methods will be found the^mqst durable^; >itnd yet 
not always^ on that account, the most- advisable.^ Suppose, 
for instance, that. by one method of construction i\ie drains 
would last forever J that this method should cost fifty dollars 
^n acre; that,. by another method, which should cost forty 
itellars an acre, they could be r made to last sixty years; 
which, in that case, would be most ad^eflable ? 

U^ndoubtedly the latter., Two dollars and fifty cents put 
at interest, at seven per cent; and doubling, as it wii|^.^at 
the end of about every fourteen years, give upwards of forty 
dollars at the end pf sixty years; of course there would be 
a saving of about seven dollar^^and a half o£ capital, by 
majiing the Wraths t)n thi^ cheaper construction^ 7 

The mpst -costly construction of the sftiall idrains would 
be such as we have belore describjed foR the leaders; but 
©n a smaHer scale. The cheaper constructions are, to dig 
them very narrow at the bottom, and then lay in some sub- 
stances through which the waters can readily find their 
way into.^the leaders. For this purpose, very coarse gravel, 
which coiitain^ little or no mixture at fine earthy mauer, 
has been successfully usfed, and this generally forms a very 
durable drain. 



160 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

The next best method, perhaps, is to- lay in a proper 
quantity of the smaller |imbs hi trees. Instances are men- 
tioned^.by British Wriier, where the small Hnibs and twigs 
of the beach, and ot the willow^ had lain in the bottoms 
of diai^ for forty years, and were Still tolerably sound. 
They sfiould be laid down in a green state, and in quantity 
sufficient for all the waters of the drain to pass easily 
through them; and should be covered with, a thin layer 
of straw, or other fit ingredient, to keep th^* earth, when 
tht^wn on, froip falling down among thera, and thus imped* 
ing the waters in^ their course, .^ * 

Another method is, to lay a large roll or rope of twisted 
straw, say, four inches in diameter, along in the bottom of 
the drain; and theti^ throw in the earth. The waters, in this 
case, at first find Their way through the straw : But this 
soon rots away,- and leayes a circular aperture, which is the 
best shape for preventing the earth pn thd upper side from 
falling in. t This kind of drain willlas^ fbrty years or niore. 
In this' Cfise, however, it would seem that the descent of the 
dranis should not be too rapid ,3^stt the waters Wash away 
Seme of the earth, and thus even||^lly stop the apertures. 

Another rnethod is, to cut the drain about fob r inches 
wide at' the bottom, apd widening from that for eight or ten 
inches upwards; then take pieces of the sward, which n^^st 
be laid asiide for the purpose, and cut them into a wedg^ing 
shape, so that when laid into ihe dralh, with the grass-side 
downwards, they will onl^ go within about four inehes 
of the , bottom, thu^ forming an aperture t»^low for the 
passage of ahe waters. This kind of drain, U is said by 
British Writers, Avill last about forty years. 

We will;^ mention another method of carrying off the 
superabundant y^tet-s, of mowing and of pasture-land, that 
is often foUnd very bentficial to the pasture, or to th& 
growing crops of grass: This is to run furrows with the 
plough, at suitable distances apart, and in proper directions, 
though the land&; then dig out narrow channels, say^ three 
ino»es wide, and as txiany deep, in the bottoms of the"' fun 
rows; and then lay the S»[ard, turned over by th^ pbugh, 
back ill' its proper place. W jk^ 

If this operation be properly performed, |^i,^y often, be 
found very serviceable, especially where .j^hetiVy xattie, < or 
carriages^ are not suffered to go on the ground, 'i^- 

Someiirtie,s lands may require hollow-draining, which are 
so shaped ast to have no natural outlet for the waters. In 
such cjse, let a hole be dug in the lowest p^rt of the land, 
till a stratum oT course sand, of gravel, can be found, if at 
any re(iso9able depth: Then fill up*the hole with stones, as 
before nb'entiont;d, and carry the drains into it, where the 
\V4ter3 will sink away in th^ sand or gravel below. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 16 1 

III Greatbritain, where lands are dearer, and labor 
cheaper, thap in this Country, hollow-draining h^ been 
found a very profitable improvement of wet soils?'' That 
Country, however, has a much moister climate th|in this ; 
and, of course, much of the upland soils there are longer in 
a wet state, than in thi^'Couniry. 

We have, however, conhiderable lands which would be 
much improved by hollow-draining : But the essential in- 
quiry is, would not the expense overbalance t-he additional 
value tonfered on the lands by the operation ? la many 
cases, most probably, it would : In otjiers, again, we think 
tJhie ihnprovement would be found profitable; particularly if 
the operation were performed in the cheapest manner. 

Machinery may easily be contrived for the purpose of 
cuting the drains, and of closing them again, principally by 
the labor of Harses, or Oxen, which might be a great 
saving in the expense, ^ ji 

Bridges, on the construction of the hollow- drain,^ may 
often be advantageously used for passing over dirches, and 
smah streams. For this purpose, a suitable quantity of 
stones are Mo be thro v/n into the ditch, or channel ot the 
stream, and the chinks filled up, as bclore mentioned, and 
coii'ered with earth, and a durable" brio ge is nwide. The 
waters of the ditch or stream pass underneath among Vfie 
stones. 

Hop (Hamulus.) This plant requires a rich mellow 
soil, well pr'epkred by dicing or dee^5 ploughing. Bog- 
meadows are good for raising it. 

The plants are raiji^d in hills, six or seven feet apart, 
where the soil is not very rich, and at a greater distance, 
>feher<B it is richer. In the Spring, when the plants begin 
td^ shoot, take cutings from branches which grow from the 
main root: If of< the last year''s growth, the better; and 
thelse are known by their white appearance. Let each have 
three (M* four buds; bury them lightly in the hills, with4he 
buds uppermost; allow |two or 'three sets to a pble, and 
thre^ poles to a hill. For makin^the hills, first dig round 
holes about <^j|e feet in diam^r5 a^'loot in depth, and 
^Uper if th% M^ will admit it;' fill up these ,*yith the ea*th 
thrown oi^t, welitnixed with old compost, if the soil be not 
already very ^ich. * / ' 

The first ye^r, the^hills kre* not to be poled j, but the 
ground in this, as in all succeeding years, is to be kept 
mellow and free from weeds, by ploughings t^nd hoeingis. 
As the vines rise , thik^year, let thefh be s'igl*tly twisted 
together on each hill, and let the hills be raiife a lit|le by 
hoeing in some earth round the^yines. * 



162 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

Early in the Spring, thef second year, and always after 
this, the hills^are to be opened, and the sprouts or suckers 
cut off within an inch of the old root; but that must he left 
entire, as well as those shoots which incline downwards, to 
form ncs-iv roots. Some manures should occasionaiiy be 
added, of composts formed of seasand, marie, ashes, &c, 
with other ingredients, such as roten hogdung, &c. 

The poles never should be too long, as the vines never 
begin to bqar much till they have got to the ends of the 
' poles. Set them so as to form a triangle, with one pouit to 
ythe north, and let them meet together at the top. Poles 
of ten feet are long enough for the first year^ Alter that, 
they are to be fifteen, -eighteen, or twenty feet long, accord- 
ing to t,he strength of the ground; but never so long as 
that the vines cannot go somewhat beyond their tops. 

About the first of September, or as soon as their color i# 
changed, and they emit a fragrant smell, they are to be 
gathefedv If gathered later, the vines will bear more the 
next year; but the present crop will not be quite so 
good, -v^ 

When the poles are drawn to be picked, cut the vines 
asuiider three or foUr feet from the ground;" fol* ciiting 
lower, while they are green, weakens the root by too gi«at 
SI liow of sap. , ■ ■ ' 

The best way to dry them is on Jtilns, and this is necies- 
sary where large crops ^te raised^ twit they may be dried 
in the sun, or on floors under cover; though these will not 
be so well flavored,-as when kiln-dried. When kiln-dried, 
let the heat be steady and moderate; for if it turn the hop 
brown it will be injured. Let theni lie about six inches 
thick, and be frequently turned, while drying. The seeds 
will crackle a little, wh6n bursting, and then the hops are 
sufficiently dried, t ^ ' 

Before they are baged, they should be laid in a heap, 
abbut four days, to sweat an^ grow tough ; and if covered 
wit}ii blankets awhile, they will be the better. The bags are 
to be of coarse linen cloth, about eleven feet 16d^, and 
about two and a half ya^Svin circumferetjce, and should 
contain about two hundr'ft and fifty wjeight of hops> The 
thicker the bag the better tb^y will keep, -s^ ^^■ 

To bag thehi, a hole is made through %n upper floor, to 
♦which the open bag is suspended; the hops are thrown in, in 
small quantities at once^ and trod down as hard as possible; 
for the harder the better. When full, sow the bag up as 
light as possible. Mind to make four handles to the bag^ 
one at each corner. -They are made by tying -a handful! 
of hops in seach corner, so as ta ^rm knobS| • whicbi miyr 
easily be held^in the hand. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 163 

The best poles are those which will la^f longest. ..Ches- 
nut is on this account to be prefered. They are to Be laid 
under cover, while not in use. Each pole should have 
three vines, and all above this should be broken off in the 
Spring. * * 

A hop- garden, says Mr. Young', will last almost forever, 
by renewing the hills that now and then fail; but the better 
way is ta grub it up, and new plant it, about every twenty- 
fi^qVyears. 

'Mats made of the splinters of ash will answer as well as't 
those made of hair, for the purpose of being used in kilns 
for drying the hops. 

The seed of the hops is ihfe strongest part; and therefore 
they should always be g^^githered so soon, that these will'not 
fallout in gathering^ -- ^y. 

The long^, white h^'p. Is most esteemed, as yielding the 

§atest quantity and being the most beautiful. Care/^bould 
t^Uken to have tiie hops ail of otie/kind ; for, if there bs 
erent sorts, some will probably- ripen before others. 
Some say th%t the hills in the hop-yard should be covered 
with manure every Fall, to preserve the roots from the 
frqsts; but this may pfobably be the suggestion of those 
wh'0 are often so minutely nice, that their practice is fiot 
Warranted by the expense. Experience, however, is the 
bes^ g:uide in thesfe matters. /;f^ 

4^ The culture of hops is very profitable. At the price 
Uiey command in this Country, ap acre^f them, well culti- 
vated, will amoCmt to two or three hundred dollars, and the 
expense, to the acre, of raising them will not he more than 
one hundred. Nor need the Farmer be fearful of a want 
{^market for them, as they are always a good article for 
eicportaiion, if not wanted at home, 

HORN-DISTEMPER. ^e^NEAT-c attle. 

- HORSE. The marks of a good Hors6 are, a high neck, 
full breast, a lively eye, a strong^c^ stiff dock, fUU but-' 
tocks, ribs reacj^in.^ near to th?^%ips, ^good hoofs, and a 
gofod gait. "''■^" "' „ ' ■ •■ \ - M 

Something has already been, said of Colts, and of the 
manner in which they ought t6 be treated while they are * \ 
acquiring their growth. 

See Foals. ^ . "^ ^ 

The next point is to tre^ of them as Horses ; and here^jf 
matter of the first consecjwince is, to break them well. 

The common method of foixibly breaking thein is absurd 
in practice, and often dangerous to him*that Undertakl^ it. 
In this case, a^ in most others^ gentle means are best. 
First, let a young Horse be tamed by leading ^ith ^'bridle; 



364 FARMER^ » ASSISTANT. 

then saddle hifirt^^d lead him about smartly so as to make 
him trot ; then put weights in the saddle, adding more and 
more till he carries the lull weight of a Man. It he be 
very fractious, lead him with another Horse. After he has 
been broke to leading wellj and ca<^fyjng burdens, let him 
be gently mounted, while some Person holds him, and rode 
about in a ploughed field, with another Horse before him^ 
if necessary, until he learns to go by himself. * 

In teaching a young Horse to draw, the same gentlciress 

% should be used ; first putmg hina with a gentle Horse that 

is true to draw.; then loading him lightly, and gradually 

heavier, till he has learned, like his teliow, to exert his 

lotmost strength. ' ; - ^ y 

, Horses should have, at dry pasture^ and a good shade in it. 
yir-.L^ffommedieu makes mention of ;a Horse which was 
always kept m a dry poof pasture of^ild gpas6 ; and yet 
was always fat; and the reason assigned for this was, that 
the Horse, for want of water, learned to- feed at nig|||^ 
when the dew is on^ which ' renders the grass more 
nourishing. 

The best method of keeping working Horses in Summer, 
where it can be conveniently done, is to soil them ; tha,t is, 
to ifeed tliem in stables, cuting and carrying in grass to 
feed them. The grass should be cut atid carried in during 
the morning, while the dew is on. They should also have 
a yard adjoining the stable, in which they may run at large 
at times. This pjis^i^tice is a great saving of pasture-land; 
the Horses will ke^p much better, aqd they are always at 
band for service. 

Clover, whether green or dry, is^' considered one of the 
most nourishing grasses for Horses j Uut^ if clover-hay b^ 
fed to them for some time, it piroduees too great a degrejp 
of looseness. Clover and timothy together is therefore the 
best. When grain is giveniJheiln, let'^'it be either ground, 
or boiled. 

A Horse never should be exercised so severely as to 
make him sweat prcjfusfjly; or, if he be, let him be well 
covered until his #;in ^d hair be dried, ^nd in the mean 
time thoroughly rubed down. He should at^^l times be k^pt 
clean, and his skin curried, but not too severely. 

A very common error with Fiirmers is, to \Mtp more 
Horses than they want, and to kee|J them all' but poorly; 
but the reverse of this only can be called economy. Keep 
but few Horses, and' keep them well. On a stock or dairy- 
farm, of a hundred acres, two< I^rses, if properly kept, are 
sufficient; and double that number istenough op a farm 
of tNe )same lizc that is kept under the plough ; or rather, 
on luch farm, two HorsQji and a yo^e of Oxen may, per- 
Siaps, bfe fouod advisable. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. , 165 

When a Horse is on a journey, he sho^be fed. with hay 
and provender, and not turned out Jfo gr^s at evening, tor 
his joints to be stiffened by the dampness and cold ot the 
night, after the warm and severe exercises of the day. Tp 
prepare him for a journey, he ought al^o to be previously 
kept to hay, with provender, and have moderate daily exer- 
cise, in order that his fat may become more' splid, and of 
course his body better enured to fatigue., Hef ought also 
to be shod sonje days before, in order, that the shoes may 
become easy to his feet. ' - v W^' . # 

It would be desirable to have a remedy 'Tor the dryness 
of hay, so as to render it a more agreeable food for Horses. 
Set a basket of snow before a Horse, whilQ at hay, and he 
will take a mouthful of hay and then of snow, afiernately ; 
which shows that aomething is needed to supply the vjraste 
of .saliva which. i*Aftbsorbed by the hay while eating. In 
Summer, Horses might have Water constantly before them, 
but :the coldness of Winter precludes any substitute but 
snow, unless something pf this kind should ,b|;foiiHd*r in 
feeding 'plentifully, with carrots. These they are fpnd of, 
and it is fouad that they will keep thenar as well as oats, 
and fate n those that are lean. Some other kinds of roots 
would, perhaps, answer equally v/ell, particularly >|;hen 
steamed. ' ; 

It is chiefly wl^at imay be called a comfortable, state of 
eXjistence, or a freeness from. suffe^|ig, vv^hich occa?^ions a 
H6r$e to grow fat f and therefore, th^J^ss they suffer from 
thirst, from want of agreeable fopd, oi^lsbmfortable stabling, 
or from too severe exercise, the easier they may be kept in 
good order. These things -are apt to be little ^attended to; 

«d in this way animals entrusted , to our care^ which it is 
^ duty to make comfortable while they exist, are oft^n 
glected and left to suflper. 

A disorder, cajled Ftycflisiriy h?is for some,^ears past been 
gaining ground among Horsed in Pennsylvania', and is ex- 
tending to those of this State: Thisis an excessive water- 
ing or slavering at the mouth, wj^ch prevail8,^«iostly during* 
the middle aud latter pait of th§'%rowihg season, and t^nds 
very much to impoverish these animals, and sometimes 
even kills them. Various causes have been assigned for 
this.; b^t none of t|iem satisfactory. There is, however^ 
a certain remedy for the disorder; this is to soil the 
Horses. 

5'(?e Soiling^ 8e^. * 
And to sprinkle thb grass thus fed to them with a small 
quantity of some grain, suitable for them, ground fine. 
This remedy has the peculiar advantage of^being one that 
is profitable, where some iHiitable grass i'i kept for soiling. 



166 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

.^Mr. Peters s^t$*that this jdisease q( Horses prevailed ia 
Pennsylvania, before the introduction of gypsum as a ma- 
nure in., that Stale; and thinks iW the true cause of the 
disorder has not yet been truly ascertained, as hay made 
of th« second growth of grass frequently produces it. He 
finds alsoy that soiling Horses on red^clover, when this 
grass has become rather too much ripened, frequently ha| 
the same effect. ^ ^ ^ 

Mr. I^rlec contends, however, from the restjlt of exper-' 
•aments he has i^ade, that the plant called Euphorbia Macu- 
Hata^ growing among, red-clover, produces the. complaint; 
and that this plant will also produce a sirr.ilar effect, when 
eaten by other animals. It is of an acrid and ^poisonous 
nature. ; 

Dr. Mease makes mention of a mill used in Pennsylvania, 
for grinding Indian corn together wi^? the cob, which is 
much approved, where it is in practice, for makiog a more 
valoable food for Horses, than grain ground in any„other 
way/j as thp^cobs ©f themselves /^possess considerable nutri- 
ment; while, at th€f same/tim«, as Dr. Mease observes, this 
inerease of.bulk serves to afford the stimulus of distension, 
which is as necessary, for either Man or beast, as the nuJuri- 
mental parts of food. ^ " V 

No dotjbt the same method of managing this grain wauld 
be found (equally advantageous ^for fating other gattle. 

It is also foundjha&iimeal, of all sort?, when fermented 
and baked, will go twice as far in feeding Horses, or other 
cattle, as that which has not undiergone these operations. 

l^ord Dundonald recommends malting of grain, before 
feeding to Horses, in order to fix its sacharine quality. 

When the teeth of an old Horse meet together they pr(^, 
ject outward, so as nearly to form a right angle ; those o^ 
young Horse meet almost perpondicularty ; those of a mid- 
dle-age are a niedium between the former and latter; so 
that the age of a Horse can be very nearly ascertained by 
attention to these circumstances. The lips also of a young 
Horse are firm and hard, and his mouth is very fleshy with- 
in the palate. The Tips pffAti old Horse are soft and flabby, 
and easy to turn up, and his mouth is lean dfy^ye. and below 
the palate, and seems only to have the skin over the bones. 
The teeth of the young Horse are usually short; of those 
that are old, usually ;long ; though these signs are not 
always cenaini 

The eye of an old Horse usually s^ppears sunken; that 
of the young more full. The endsx)f the teeth of a two- 
year-old Horse have no black spots; at three, they have 
two of these in the two middle under teeth ; at lour, they 
have four such spots; at five, they have six, each front 
tooth then having one i and at six these spots disappear ia 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 167 

the four middle teeth, and ar^ only seen in the two next 
the tusks, vhich a(t th^age of five makejtheir appearance. 
Those well experienced in thefee matters have other signs, 
by which they can judge pretty nearly of the age of si 
Horse, after he has passed six years, but not with cer» 
lainty. - ' 

See further, Mares, and Foals, Sec. For the diseases of 
Horses, see BoT\toRMs, False quarter, FarcY, Found- 
ERFNG, Gigs. Glatj^ers, Gripes, HiderounI), Lampas, 
PoLi^EviL, Scratches, Spavin, Staggers, Strain, Sur- 
feit, Tumor, Vives, Ulcer, Wheezin^, Windgall, 
and Yello^vs; . '^ 

When Horses, by long journeys pr otherwise, have the 
skin rubed off tlieir backs, let a little dry wbitelead be 
occasionally sprinkled over the raw flesh, which lyiM soon 
heal the sore. Persons on jourpieys ought always- to carry 
some of this articlilwith them, for this^ purpose. Whea 
the withers of the Horse are wrung, and swelled by means 
of bad saddles or otherwise, the swelling may^ be allayed by 
washing the part' with brine, or with sak and blaci- soap 
mixed together, applied t^the swelling. Any restringent, 
such as alum be^t up with the white of eggs, is also 
good- • - ' y 

HORSE-HOE. This is a kind of plough invented by 
Mr. Tull. It differs from th6 one-horse pldtigh, in having 
shafts like those ot-^^a one-horse carriage, and the plough is 
regulated in a great degree by the shafts, so that much de- 
pends on the steadiness of the Horse. ""^ r 

The shafts §erve to regv^ate the depth the^plough !§ to 
run. They are- more convenient in turning, as there are no 
t^e-ropes, or chains, usfed in drawing, for the Hor^e to 
'^ his legs over. ' ' 

See further, Ptou^GHi- 



y> 



IMPROVEMENT of LAND. This is to be effected 
in various ways, and by^ variotis means. Some lands are 
naturally sterile from the want of moisture^ some, from 
having too much of this; some, from being^destitute of cer- 
taia ingredients in the soil; and some, from being too 
rough and stony for any profit in tillage-. 
' ■' • i 



16$ FARMER^s ASSISTANT. 

,! In the SoiiUiern States, too, tlrere is much land that has 
ISlcome sterile % severe cropirig t(^ tobacco and Indidti 
corn; and, by being left bare, has Washed much into gul- 
lies by the rains. 

Many dry^ sandy, anjd gravelly tracts may be converted 
into a state of fertility, by the addition of clay or marie to 
the soil. . ,. v* 

See Manures. -#*'' T' •-'> 

There are also particular passes th«t flourish in vei-y ^^fej^ 
soils, whith would enable thfe Farmer successfullylo pur- 
sue the soiling-system of culturer in such lands. 
'5e<? Grasses, Soiling, Scd 

Where such soils ariB, however, at the same time very 
broken, perhaps the Culture of the locust would be found 
the most; profitable td which' they could be , applied, 'the 
mulberry might also be <iultivated in ,^e lower and richer 
parts. '■'■■. • ; ^^%^^^ ',' ' :. 

See J^oc^sT and Mulberry.' -H 

the soil of the 'county of Norfolk, Greatbritain, in its 
original state, wa^ mostly' a poor weak sand, very sinSilar to 
niuch of the lands lying betv^eeft the cities of Albany and 
Schenectady,' and id Several extensive pSne plains which liie 
in tiie county of 'Saratoga, and elsewhere in that vicinity. 
Bjut this poor soil has, nevertheless; been rendered nearly 
as productive as any in th^t Country; and this has been 
wh9lly effected by proper manures, ^to make it more reten- 
tive of inoisture, and by a system of husbandry adapted to 
the soil. w ' , 

It is there that' the. culture 6t turnips, for feeding and 
fating of cattle, is most exiensivfcly pursued. Those who 
cultivate those land,s have long since discovered, that the 
finly way tornake them profitable for cultivation is, to stjj 
them with as many Neat-cattle as can be fed and lal 
upon them; which affords the, manures that are essentially 
requisite for such soils. They need little ploughing, but 
much manure; and that of Neat-caitle is particularly fited 
for them. The soilihg-sysilem Is admirably calcu4ated |pr 
such land's. • {^^l '^ 

But, before such soils (C^ti be well fited |jp|^good cultiva- 
tion, they require some manure which will .^due them with 
more solidity, and thus mak6 them more r^'tentive of mois- 
ture ; and this is only to be effected by sufficiently loading 
the soil with the earth of bogswamps, or that dog out 
of pon(is, or with upland mafle, or clay, or Ipam. Probably 
peat, (ft turf, when completely decomposed. By the acid 
of lime, in compost's,- may be found to answer prfeuy well 
tpr this purpose. 
See Manures. 

% 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 1G9 

Of marie, or clay, or >otherrententive earth, as much as 
one hundred loads tQ4he acre are usually requisite in the 
first instance tor such soils ; and tlien, with the aid of clover, 
and other grasses suitable tb* thenj, and with gypsum, and 
the manure which the cattle afford, nfi'ad^ into suitable conm- 
posts, or oiherwise, they will be found very pleasant and pro- 
fitable lands for sucKgi^owihs as are suitaWe to ihetti. And 
they will b^found suitable toe, most crpps» even for wheat, 
where It is so\V'ed on a clowerswV^ turned under. 

After such soils have thus been made suflicietitly reten- 
tive of .moisture, they will, perhaps, be foynd^s profitabfe 
for Guliiva^tion as almost any soil whatever ; auid for this 
reason, I hat, although they will atteHvards require more 
ejtpense in manuring, than is requisite in the stronger soils; 
yet tliis expenditure will be found bulanced by the gieat^r 
ea&e with AY^iiicli ilxey can bq ,pioptrly filed, by ploughing, 
lor'grOwini^ of cropsV - 

They rtquire but Intie ploughing, and but little strength 
is requisite for perVorming it. In most cases, one plough 
ing, ii properly performed, is sufficient; or two^ at most, 
will only be found riiecessary. - Where a clover- sward of 
such soil is to he turntd under, two Horses will befoujtd 
requisite;' biit for merely stint) g tiife ground up, where 
th^re is\fiO sward, the strength of one good Hors«, or of 
twii'iA^ses,' will be fotind fully adequate. 
"^/V-^e Ass 

br'%he (double plough, which turns two furrows at once, 
may be used in' such case, and drawn by tivo Horses or two 
Oxen. 

See Plough. . . .. 

In the counties of Albany, SxAenectady, Saratoga, and 
^13B^" there are plains of I'g^it sandy lands, lo the extent 
of^P^haps one hundred thousand acrjgs, which, if they were 
improved, and cultivated, in the mapner just, described, 
woiild pfobably give amplt^ employ and supportj' to at least 
one thousand Farmers; while, at present, those lands are 
.almost wholly unproductive. And, as far as those tracts 
have colne under our observation><it is believed they are 
bottomed by silbstjrata of clayey marie, or of blue cla^; 
either of whichjvft|ipl1ed to those soils, would -answer vvtJl 
for imparting to them i:hfe requisite ^degree of solidity, and 
tenacity of moisture. • 

The average expense of manuring these grounds, wi^h 
one hundred loads to the acre of clayey marie, clay, or 
strong loam, 'would probably be about twenty-five cen.ts a 
load^or twenty^i^ve dollars san acre. T lie land thus manured 
would be -worth from ^orty to sixty dollars an acr6,- atcora- 
iog to its proximity to market, and to the goodness of the 
material used in thus improving the soil. 



iro FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

% 
i^ Mr. You7is^jtn9kes mentipii of British Farmers making 



their torti|g|sip>y bringing poor sandy lands, of the above de- 
scription, under profitable cultivation, by the aid of clays, pjr 
clayey marks, for manuring them. A marie having maclii 
sand combined with it would be unfit for this purpose. 

It is only the tolerably level parts of such lands, which 
should be selected for thus improving. Those which are 
broketi are generally too sterile, arid to little retentive of 
manure, to be inrtproved to any advantage, otherwise tbanlby 
planting them with locust, for which they are verjf well 
adapted. ^ ^ 

Sometimes, ioo, If me parts of such soils will be found 
closely underlaid with a sand too coarse to b^ tnade suffi- 
ciently retentive, by any. reasonable expense ; these should 
therefore be cultivated v/ith the locust, or perhaps with 
fruit trees, if they will thrive Oil such soils. 

Our sea-coast abounds, in many |)laces, with much sandy 
lands, which need improving in the nianper ju^i mentioriCd. 
Under Manures, the Reader will also find some hints, 
relative to a method which might probably be advantage- 
ously adopted, for improving all landsf which lie adjoitiing, 
or near, every seasiiore, by manuring them with sea- 
water. ' ^^ 

Where laj^^s are |oo retentive of moisture, and at the 
same time not too leve^ nor too steeps they may^ be *g^^e|ytly 
benefited by hollow-drains. , s^f 

•See Hollow-drains. '^ : »# ' 

Where they are flat meadows, marshes, or morasses, they 
are to be laid dry by open drains. 

See BoGMEADOws and Ditches. 
V Where they Re too 1^ for any draining of this kind, 
they are either to be raised by the means of warfiii^BMr 
the water is .tp be raised out of the ditches, for the pur^6se 
of being thrpyvn back into the river, ocean, or elsewhere, 
whence theyicame, by the means of wind- machinery. 

In this noanner, a-large proportion of flolland h^s been 
redeemecl from the ocean ; atid x:onsiderable tracts in Cam- 
bridgeshire and Lincoliishire, in England, have in like man- 
ner been made yery pl^ductive for grass. ' 

In this case, the ditches, which are to^lbe large and pro- 
portioned to the extent bf the tract drained off, ar^ to be 
run to that point where it* is most convenient 'to raise the 
waters out of them by wind-machinery, to be carried off. 
But, in order to dp this, a dyke, or bank, is first to be rais« 
ed round that part of the land ar' joining the side whence it 
is overflowed; or, if it be an island, it is to be banked all 
round. The bank ^?, to be of a height and thickness suita- 
ble to the weight and turbulence of the walers it may a' 
times have to eiteouater from without. 



J 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. in 

«^ It is, ad visible to plant the outside of these ban^p« with 
trie shrub-willow, which grows along the bdinljLS of the low- 
land^s ot many ot the small rivers oi this Country Y but by no 
means should such banjos be planted with trees ot large 
growth, as these are liable to be upset by the winds, and 
Jtijght thus do great mischief, by leting in the adjacent 
waters. ^ ^ 

There are many tracts of marshy lan^s on our sea-shores, 
Which might be rendefred very valuable by Wing; thus im- 
bariked, then ditthed, and having the Waters, of the di^tches 
thrown over the banks, by th& aid of wind-machinery. 
See that article. 

Between Hoboken and Newark,' in 'Newjersey, is a large 
tratt of this description. Such larlds being strongly;- im- 
pregnated with the baits of the ocean, ai'e generally very 
tertile> where they arfc laid Bufficienily dry for the plough; 
and, in sucli ease, if they are laid down with meadow-cats- 
tail, or other grass suitable to the 'soil, 'they will yield dou- 
ble, perhaps treble, the amount which they bore otthe salt- 
grass, with which they were covered in their naturlal 
sta^e., „. •■ . •■.. ■ " ■ ' 

In the county of 'Orange is a very .large tract, called the 
druwned- lands i which never can be effectually drained, but 
by in« method above meniioned;, anci the same may be ob- 
served of another large tract, adjoining the Sacondaga 
fiVei^r in the county of Montgomery. The like observation 
may be applied to the great tracts of marshy and swampy 
lands on the Senaca river; to the tract called the Tonnt' 
%vanta swamfi; and to many/Other tracts, ^within and vvithoiit 
this State, which need not be, here designated. 

Another greatimprovement of swasmpy lands iS effected 

Siming them, after laying them dry by ditching. It is 
icularly Useful in all grounds which are cohered with a 
peiaty or turfy matter, from which Httie or no vegetation is 
to be expected^ . 

By mixing^Jime with surfaces of this description, a fur- 
ther decomposiuon of this vegetable matter tak«s place, and 
it becomes reduced to a solid and fertile mould, capable ot 
sustaining vigorous growths of plants suited to siich soils. 

But this is j^^^the only benefit derived from the process; 
as the lime de'siiiys the mzaswa whith is often so abundant- 
ly produced in 'such soils, as to render them the seats of 
P^stiknce and disease, j ^ 

The liming of swamps for the double purpose of render- 
ing , them healthy, and increasing their fertility, was first 
suggested by .Linriceus, and is said to have been of late 
yery successfully practised in Greatbritain. 

^ee Manub-es, for- the quantity of lime to be used. 



172 FARMER^ ASSISTANT. 



^ 



Along the baj^s ot rivej^^*^any« IpW tracts^ of 1^3 may 
be greatly^Jnnproved, by raising them higher with the 
sediment OT'^he waters. In this way, much has been done 
on the banks of the Don, thfe Ouse, and the Trent; iu 
Greatbritain The land which is thus to be raised has, first, 
a dyke or bank.Mhrown up round it, similar to that just de- 
scribed, for the purpose of keeping put the waters of th6 
river, ..except at the place where a j^ie is to be erected to 
let them in. When they are to be let in, that is, when ihey 
are muddy and haye considerable s*ediment to deposit, the 
gate is to be raided ; ^nd, after the sediment ha$ beervde- 
positcd, they are kt off again; and a new supply is t;aken 
in at the next tide, or at the next flood, a« the case 
may be. 

Mention is made, by the Gompilers of ' The, Complete 
Griizier,' of lands on some of the tide^waterb of Greatbritain 
having been raised two^eet higher, by this method, in a 
short time. The progress to be made in thus raising the' 
land must, however, depend on the depth to which the 
waters cover the land, the quantity of mud or sediment they 
contain, and to the irequencTy with which the land can thu^ 
be flooded. 

The sediment which is thus deposited tnakes ^. ver^y fer- 
tile soil; but most fertile where it is the sediment of tide- 
waters near t.he ocean; as in,v that case the soil, thus made, 
must be strongly impregnated with th^ salt of that wa^eu. 

Probably little or nothing could, in this way, bjC^/ effected 
by the tides of our rivers ; as the tides here do not gene- 
l~ally rise sufficiently high, to prodijce a current so rapid as 
to stir up mud for ibrmjng much sediment: But there is 
every reason to believe, that much of our low, swampy, 
intervale gro.unds might be greatly benefited, by leting.in 
the waters of the adjacent river, duripg a i^ood, and haviftg 
the sediment all deposited before they were let off again. 
^. Bkji tills plan appears to , bis admirably- calculated for 
filliirg up the vast swamps, which abound so much oh the 
Missouri and the Mississippi. Those rivers, during high 
v/aier, contain a greater proportion of mud than perhaps 
aLiy pihe;t: streams; and at this time the waters can readi- 
ly be^ycarried through the leve.es, into the lower back 
*; rounds, after they have been properly innbanked; and, in 
due seajjori, 4et off again, eitheTr into the bayous, where 
these are fouiid, or into the rivers, after the waters have 
subsided. ^ : ^^ 

In this way, it v/ould seem that the immense intervales, 
which every where border on those sireannfs, may be re- 
deemed from the dominion of the waters; that the same 
sediment .which serves,, in the first instance, to raise the 
laiids higher, may afterwards be used, when necessary, for 



i^ARMER's ASSISTANT. 173 

the purpose of mandring them ; and thXis^ a secdtid Egypt 
may be ^tificially created, of vastly greater ejctent than the 
tract of land which^ is enriched by tM ^overHowings ot the 

'Lands whi6h are liable to be ibuivdated, by the rise of 
rivers, may also be protected from the" waters, by imbank- 
ments'.on each side of the streams; tvhich is the method 
adopted on the cultivated parts, of the Mississippi, on a 
great e;xtent of the Euph^-jbites; artd on many other streams < 
and* during the season of hi^p waters, great care is re- 
quisite to prevent their breaking through the banks, and 
''/tiius rhundating the adjacent lands. 

Much lands in their natural state are found covered with 
a turf or peat substance, and sometimes of very considera- 
,b]e h'tckness, particularly those^ which are more elevated, 
and in raakre;>n.orthern latitujdes. Large tracts of the high 
,Jands» which lie northerly of the settled parts of Herkimer 
"and M5ntgomery counties, are ot that description ^ The 
soils thus covered ar« usually of pretty good quality ; gen- 
;. eraliy best fiie^ for grass, however; though sometimes they 
are merely poor s£(nds. . _= 

The mass with, which they ar« covered appears to be a 
.mixture of wood and vegetable matter, which has only un- 
dergone a panial decomposition ;. owing, probably, to the 
coolness of the surrounding atmosphere, which: is formed^ 
by the shade of a thick growth of wood;, for, if this be cut 
away, %nd the sun let in, this mass will gradually undergo 
a further decomposition, and at length be so reduced in 
bulk that it can be mixed, by the .plough, with the soil be- 
neath, and thus rendered productive.- 

THis m^ss, also, when mixed with a due proportion of 
';^me, in composts, will undergo a rapid decomposition, and 
thus be rendered a good manure. /^ . , 

The bringing of si^ch lands under jdultivatipn can only be, 
effected gradually; time must be aHowed for the purpose. 
The heavy growths ot timber with which, in this Country, 
th^y abound, may be exhausted in manufactpries, of various 
kinds, which require the use of much fuel; ahd as the heat 
bf the sun v^iH, in due season, .dissipate the intupiibrance 
Which covers'tht soil, it can,' at length, be brought under 
that cultivatlc^ to which it is best syited. Such groundjsi 
even in their crude state^ will, howtver, bear tolerably gop^ 
^Vop^ of potatoes. /"'{^. . . 

Low morasses are frequeotfy composed, of turf, or p^t. 

See those articles. ^ 

If such latids can be flooded, by w<rter brought jjpbn 
them which has a sedirhent to deposit, in the manner before 
metitioni^d, tl>ey iti^, thijs be converted into fee lands. 



174. 



FARMER'I ASSISTANti^ 



Mention is ^n^adfc of this having be^n succcSsfullfipeT. 
formed, in Gr^isitbritain, whife thp water: wasN brought a 
considerable distance; and also of grounds of this descrip- 
tion having been made fine meadowlands, by m«ans of 
the most approved method of irrigation practised in that ^ 
Country. 

See Water. 

If ^uch grounds cannot be improved in either of these 
ways, they may be renderred tolerably good for grass, by 
frequent ploughings, in order connpletely to rot the surface, 
and manuring it pleniifuUy with sand, or other suitable earth* 

Sometimes lands of very good soil are found too closely 
underiai'd with limestone, or other rock, to be sufficiently 
retentive of moisture, in times of drought. Such: may^ 
nevertheless, answer very well for , orcharding, for the 
smaller fruit-trees, or for pastures, by having considerable 
growths of locust, at the same time- on the groupds, as 
these will, in a great degree^ prevent the effects of drought 

Lands which are very rockyj or stoney,,may still be very 
valuable for frult-trees, for pastures, 8cc. The clearing such - 
of these incumbrances is sometimes a matter of no sma]l 
difficulty ; and U is always advisable to calculate, whether 
the additional value of the land/ when cleared, will warrant 
the expense,' an additional inducement, however, for incuring 
the expense^ is^ that' these incumbrances are usually good 
materials for making the rnbst substantial kind of fence. ■ 

The Southern Planter often finds himself in possession 
of large tracts of lands, which have been exhausted by the 
constant culture of tobacco, and Indian corn. These tracts 
ajce frequently turned to commons, and dk^ .then called o/rf- 
^ild. In this exhausted state they, perhaps, do not^teld 
ftie Owner six cents an acre, by the year. How shall he*; ^ 
re^novate tliese lands, and thus restore tertility and beauty t^ 
some of tlie fairest portions ot the earth, which have b^en 
blasted and desolated by the hand of ?vlan ? V ^ 

Th6 Planter must change his mode of culture ;' he ' must 
pursue a system a^'good, as that which laid his lands waste 
was bdd- He must keep his lands well stocktd with clover, 
DP other good grass, and keep as many cattle as he can 
find ni^ans of supporting, in order to enable himself to 
make as much manure as possible. He must feed his^ lands 
t^ith every Idnd of manure which is proper for them ; pur- 
sue the soiling-ci^lture, as far as that may be found suitable 
for his grounds; plough often, and well; and he will soon 
find that his how barren wastes will bloorti with increasing 
♦ verdure. !■ _ 

V Those parts, however, which have been too deeply gum- 
^d^;% the rains, to be easily leveled ag^n, should be plant*- 
i&!mih locust, or other valuable wood. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 175 

It^h?is been generally pbseryed, that when crops are suf- 
fered to stan^ on the ground^ uptil they have fully ripened, 
they/ exhaust the soil considerably more,_,than if taken off in 
a greener state. The same is the ca^ in regard to weeds 
* of every description. ifPerhaps the remark is not so fully 
applicable to crops of roots. 

It niay therejEore be said that lands are negatively im- 
proved^* in' a saving of their usuaV exhaustion, by taking 
such crops off. the ground as soon as they have attained a 
sufficient degree of maturity. - ^ 

This is a matter that is/worthy of consideratior), . especiat- 
;; ly when it is remembered that several kinds ©r crops may 
be severed from the ground, without injury, in some cases 
with a saving, be'fore they have fully ripened. 

Thus, Irtdian corn may be cut up while the stalks are 
•^still green,. and set up in shocks for the ears to harden; and ; 
'*in this way much , good fodder will be saved. By harvesting 
oats while the stalks are soipewhat green, they will be the 
better for fodder, and the grain ^yill receive no injiiry there- 
by. The; saime may be observe(;i, to a certain extent, iri re- 
gard to crops of wheat and rye. 

, Flax pulled when just out of blossom is tmuclj th€ best; 
but in that case the seed is lost; which, howe'^fer, is not 
always of much account. The pea-crop is injured by stand- 
ing too long; as in that case the ha^^m becomes of little 
value. ' , ■ • ■ ' . ■' . • 

In short, no crops of grain derive any benefit from stand* ' 
in g until the stalks are completely dead, except when the 
grain is to be used for seed. 

The improVf^njent of land is also ta be effected, by vari- 
ous other means, which ^iU b'e treated of under different 
'^ ^nicies iSf this work. ' v 

^ The improving of a Country in the highest degree, not 
only by making^ its natural barren tracts as highly product- 
ive as theywwl bekr; but also by adding the highest addi- 
tional fertilfty to the better parts; is the foundation of its 
wealth and prosperity. ' «, 

The lands of a Nation are its principal capital: If these, 
therefore^ become so exhauste^ior be suffered to remain so 
little improved, as to yield littld more in products than what 
is merely equal to the value of the labor bestowed on them, 
the condition of that Nation must, in general, be poor; that 
of its Farmers, in particular, dan be but little better than 
that of the Laborer who has to ^arn his daily bread. 

But if the lands be generally so improved, and enriched, 
aauo yield-twenty dollars in product, for every ten dollars 
bestowed upon them in labor; then the Farmer may g^ow 
ricb,;and his affluence will be more or less felt by all plasses ^ 
of Community. 

% 



176 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

By hif!;h\y improving a Country, ^also,. its populatioti, may 
be doubled ort^Jtrhaps trebled ;, aftd, by^hus bringincj the. 
Members of community closer together, much labor is 
saved in ihelf necej^^ary intercourse; much in going to 
Church, tb Mill, and to Market. -^ 

Great natiorial work^, in constructing catials, roads, 
bridi^es, &c. wtfll benefit a greater number of l*eopje, in 
prop6t^tion to the expense^ and national,defence, in war, is. 
much more costly, for a widely-extended papulation," ihan 
that which is compact, as we have found by experience. 

Good culture, when bestowed on highly improved lands, 
may be said to be a source of rational pleasure; while that 
which is usually given to lands which are but poorly im- 
proved, is most commonly productive oi> mijch toil, and 
vexation. ' . , ^ ^ ; "*** 

IN*AJRCHING. Sometimes called., ^raft^ng By approach, 
It is the joining of twt) young trees together, that sf md ^ 
sufficiently near each other ior that purpose A part of 
each, of ,the sa^e length and width, is to be cut away, so 
Ihatj when the trees are brought together, the pared edges 
of the rinds will exactly join, A tongue shoiild be rrtade in 
the one, and a sUt in the-dther to receive it; to keep the 
parts from sliping, they are: to be bound firrhly togethiar, 
and coated with wet loam, or otherwise, as is directed in 
Grafting. After about four months, tliey will be so well 
joined that the top or bonom of either part may b|% 
taken away at pleasure ; so that in thi^ way the tap of ane* 
tree may be set on the stock of another. Let t)^e parts 
taken away be cut pfetjy close arid sloping, and cov^r the 
ends with F,orsyth's comfpo^ition, or with a coat of wet 
foam. ' ',. ' .•■ • ^, 

Tbis operation is to be performed in April or May, andS' 
is' commonly practised upon myrtles, jassmint s, walnuts, 
firs, pines, and other t re el, that will not succeed by com- 
mon grafting. Forsyt/i, hoy/ 6\Gr, observes, that the trees 
thus reared; will be 4vcakly. ^ 

INDIAN CORN fZfa J This plant is a native of this 
Country^ ahd seems tp be a^dapted to every part of it th^t 
is tolerable to be inhabited. There is but one species of it, 
though m^ny varieties, owing perhaps principally to (he 
variations of climate. It requires a warm Summer, and 
this is afforded even beyond, the most northerly parts of our 
territory. It is a very valuable grain for. almost 6 very pur- 
pose; its great increase when properly cultivat^jd, and the 
trifle that is rpquired for seed, must ever render it a 
favot-ite of the Poor, as well as an ankle of profit with the 
WeaUhy. 



tARMER*#*ASSISTANf; 177 

The ;^praises, of ^ thehasi^/rudciing* have been deservedly 
sung; and surely tffosc, at least, whdse f bones arcLjtnade 
of Injjkp^o'^"/ will readily assent to the'-<iu]ogiums of the 
Poet on the eheap, yet delicious, meal which this'puding, 
M with' milk, affords. It is lo be hoprd that our Farmers wilj 
never so far ape<the fashions of the Proud and Wealthy* 
as to acquire a taste sufficien'ly vitiated to reject the haTsty-' 
pudding ;:/as it is believed that a proper proportion of this 
diet is as well calculated to raise a fine, hardy, and comely 
race of ^en and Womenj as perhaps any other wli^t- 
ever. . ^^;'; ;. ■^.- . -• ' . , 

The> Axithor of < The Wealth 'of Nations' obseryes, that 
those of the Irish, whose principal food is pptjitoes and 
liiilk, are the handsomest and best-made of any P<;ople in 
Greatbritain : "But, in point of^tasie, the hasiypudding is 
very far superior; ancl is j)robably better caiculaied to nur- 
ture rising,^ generations of the first' order, such as, with 
proper cul'vure,' will be better fited to be .» the Lorlcis of 
human kind/ than -those vi^ho arrogantly assume this pre- 
eminence. ; ^ " 
In Kentucky, and elsewhere on the rich lands of the 
Ohio, a hundred bushels of Indian corn are frequently 
raisedto, the acre. Tbis^ has" also' been done iii this county 
(Herkimer); but so great a crop in tjiis northern climate \s 
not to be. expected, un^less on some chosen spots, and 
where the best cultivation is besfowed. Two very Ic-rge 
crops which were raised near the ciiy of Newyoik, some 
^ears since, deserve, however^ to be noticed^ as specimciiS 
^f what ^ood culture i» capable of ^producing in this 

'State. ■ -^ ■■ . ^c ■/ ' ^ ■ ; ■ 

Mr. Sicvensj who raised the largest of these crops, each 
hfirig the product of- three acres, ploui^hcd his groiu.d 
thrOT times, and previous to the last phiuiihing caned on 
seven hundred horsecart»loads of street-mcinure., He pUiu- 
ed his seed in double rows/about eight inches apart, and 
the seeds v/ere set, diagonally, (he same distance from each 
other.: Between each of these; double rows was left 0;^ pace 
of five and a half feet. *- During the season, the crop was 

. suckered tiiree tim^s, and the intervals were repeatedly 
ploughed^ and kep^t clear of weeds by hoeing and hand- 
weeding. His product was one hundred and etglueen , 
biishiels to the acre; and it Woiild probab]y have b« en great- 
er,. had not a tHunder-storm injured it,, by blowing most 

^ of it .down at the time the ears were seting; 

1^ Mr._Xwf//ou', who raised the tt"ier crop, had ninety-eight 

*• bushels to tiTe acre. He, however, carted only two hyn- 
dred loads upon his three acrss^ He plahted-his seed in 
single rovys, which were four feet apart, with the grain- 
set eightanches asunder, Probably the reasCDof this c!\ i 



178 FARMER's^ASSISTANT. 

being less than tne other was on account of less manure 
having been-carted on; ^a it is doubltul whether jilanting 
in tlouble rows is better than planting in single. 

Froq||aU!this, it appears, that a greater quantity of Indian 
corw cMbe raised on an acre, than of aqy othfel* grain; land, 
considering its nutrinoental qualities, it i;iiay- safely be said 
that, next to rice, a given piece of ground cultivatedl^ 
with this grain will support a greater huniber of Pebble, 
than th?it which is cultivated with any other grain what- 
;ever. ■»'■■ ^ 

>'. The proper ^oils for thi^ grain arethe sandV, sandy loam, 
gravelly-loam, and rieh red. or!* d^rk colored earihs, which 
have no clay in them. vStifF clays are very unfit; for this 
crop, and cold or wet loams are not qiiuch better, ^nless 
well managed • ■ ,/ ' " ' 

See Cux^bE of Crops, for the best method of managing 
such soils. 

Where swardland is intended for Indian corn, it shout<| 
be broken up in the Fall; and, if it be a stiff or wetish soifi 
it shouid be thrown up in high narrovir ridges by a^second 
ploughing, in the Spring, t!ie ground should be well mel- 
lowed with ploughing immediately before planting. What- 
ever fresh barn-dung is to be appHf^d, should be ploughed 
in. Planting in rows, agreeably to the methods before de- 
scribed, is best, as in this way about one-sixth part more 
can be raised from the acre. - , 

As soon as the plants liave got to the height of six or 
eight inches, run a furrow, with aoneh'orse plough, as close 
to the rows as possible wivhoyt iirjuring the roots, tur>iing-: 
the furroWs from the plants, then immediately turn the fur- 
rows back airam,,so'as effectually to mellow the mold into 
which the roots are shortly to extend. Let this ploughing 
be of a good depth: The hoe is to follow and complete;th? 
dressing. In due season, the plough is again to be applied, 
tuning the furrows farther from the plants, and turning 
the*m towards them j which, is again to be followed by the 
hoe.. ^ , ... 

After this, another hoeing should be given for the pur- 
;pbse of extirpating all th« after-groWtli of weeds, .yhic^h in 
old ground are apt to spring up; bur any further ploughing, 
unless at a considerable distance from the rows, will be 
found of little use to the roots; and the stalks, which are 
now very tender, will be easily braken. - 

In raising this crop, the essjential points in tilling the 
ground are, to keep it; mellow and clear of weeds ; and, 
tberetore, ploughing immediately before planting, and then 
again siiring all the ground that can be stired, by first 
ploughing closely from the rows, and then back to them, 
answers the purpose ^fmellowipg most effectually. As 



FARMER'S AS§I§TANT. 179 

•-' ■ . -,')>• •^' 

t^e roots extend into the ground tl^ us mellowed, that part 
only ijfito which they have not yet extended can, with any 
benefii to the roots, Receive any further ntiellowing from 
thf plough. ' 

It, is essential to have this plant started well; because, 
if it get stuf t'-d atthe outset by cold rains, it' seldom gets 
the better of this during its wi\ole growth^ p^Jflicularly ii ihe 
soil be not perfectly suitable to it. To prevent this, it is ad- 
visable to^^pply some stimulants to the plants at that time; 
and theybdst for this purpose are bogdirf, maile (duv^ out of 
bogswaVhps) ashes, and gypsunv. The Utttr ought, however, 
to be prefered on all soils to which it is suitable, because it 
is cheap.and easily applied. , 

Where a soil is wetisb, it ought, after being weU mel- 
lowed, to bejlhrown up into ridggrs, by having two furrows 
.^hrown up against each other,- at proper distances, and on 
the top of these ridges let the. seeds be planted, the Plant- 
ers carrying their rows crosswaya of the ridges. "^ 

Where lurrows are made fbi* planting, they ought to 
be shallow, not more than half the depth of common 
ploughing. It would be as well to have no furro,\v at all, 
but mertly to harrow the -ground smooth before' plantihg, 
^nd then to plant in roivs, by a line or mark drawn along 
the ground 'by hand, with an instrument made for the pu^r 
pose. A more complete method, however, is to drill in 
the seed, by a light drill-plough that may be easily madel 
for the purpose. One of this description may be drawn by 
hand; and may be so contrived as to make a small furrow 
about two inches deep, drop the seeds at proper distances 
info the furrow » and cover the seeds, all in one operation. 
These methods, however, are for ground that is clear of 
stonesi 

If tl^s crop be harvested too early, it will lose much by 
shrinking; It is also found, by experimentsy that where it 
is toped at the usual time the crop will be considerably 
less, tha,n if it stand without toping. If, therefore, it be 
toped at all, it .ought not to be dpnte before the grains have 
hai;dened. It is believed that th^.best plan is to cut up the 
stalki by the roots, some days after the usual time for top- 
ing, and set it up in shocks to harden. 

In this mode, the ears derive the sanre nourishment from 
the stalk which they do wjien it is left Standing* ^ large 
additional quantity of valuable fodder is thus saved; while 
at the same time the ground is cleared of its incumbrance, 
SO' as to be ready for sowing a crop of wheat the same Fall. 
The additional labor of husking out the corn in this manner 
is very trifling. The shocks are to be of such siz^ ajs can 
be conveniently tied together at the top, by bands of straw^ 
in such mlhner as too keep out the rain. 



J80 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

The best and soundest ears sliould rt>e selected for seed, 
rejeciing the grains which grow neaV each end. In or^ej: 
to acceii^ate the growrfi of the croj), it is sometime^ advisar 
b!e to '^k the seed in Water a lutle warm, for about 
twenty iour ho,urs. Another method is to pour boiiipg 
water upon ii; let it stand on it "about half a minute; then 
cool it'as soon as possible, and plant it before it dries. In 
this/'manner the seed will come up rnucli' sooner'; but If 
there should be cold rains, im^iediaicly aiier plantings there 
is danger that it will hot come up at all. 
'" -Sc^d? Seeds, for a safe m^tliod of quickening its >growth. 
If the seed be smeared all. over wiih tar, aad then Tiaye 
ashes or gypsum sprinkled on it sufficient, to rentier it fit 
for handiingj and be then phUited, neither birds nor squir- 
rels will touch it. In ihis case, hoWever, it is necessary 
first ^o soak it sufficiently to make it vegetate; as, without 
this, the coiTt of tar will keep but the moi^iture, and prevent; 
tbe seed from sproiuing. \ - 

The proper time for planting depends on the elimate. 
In this S'lale, however, from the 20ih of May to the first 
of June, is about the best time. The old Indian rule, which 
perhaps is the best, is to' plant when the leaves of the oak 
tree have grown- as large as a squirrel's loot. 

A change of seed is advisable with this grain, as with all 
others; but a chapge of seeds grown on different soils is 
perhaps the most requisite. CUariges of tliis seed ouglit 
rat Iter to be from cast to west, b,r''from west to east, allow- 
ing the climate to be the same, than horn north to south, or 
from south to north. If it be carried ftpm the south too far 
to the north, the crop will be large, but will not ripen be- 
|6re the frosts ; and if carried from the north too4ar to the 
souths it will Hpen earlier than is requisite, but tlue crop 
will be small. But it must be remembered, that climates 
%cl\eri depend on altitude asvvell as on latitude. Where 
this crop is raised on bogmeadows, which are always sub- 
ject to early frosis, the seed should be brought from the 
northward, in order jhat it may ripen before the frosts. 

Of the varieties of t his jifant, those which have the long- 
est ears and the largest grains will yield most; but Farmers, 
in many situations, must have regard to that kind which 
ripens earliest, wnotber the most productive or not. ' 

The praciice of making very large hills to this crop, 
wliile growing, is unnecessary. The principal point in hoe- 
ing i?j to destroy all the weeds, drawing at the same time 
a lutle fresh earth round the stalks whil^ youtig. There 
ought, however, to be sufficient of earth eventuiiHy drawn 
round to support the stalks. The growth of suckers is in- 
jurious to the crop, and 6'Ught to be either pulled up, op 
bent dov/n to the ground antl covered v/ith earlrti sufhcient 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 181 

to kill them; fend this is believed td /be ^ the better way, as 
by this mean tlie principal stalk is not injui-ed by wounding. 
It is said that sprinkling "Ibme gypsum on the st|k ot tlie 
e4r will mctke it fill to the very end. / 

^^llndian ^corri will grow many successive years on the 
same grpuridi; but it is not advisable to platit it more thaa 
two years saccessively, as it is a crop which exhausts the 
soil. Like sonie other crops, it 'Cannot be overdone by 
manuring; but, on the contrary, the richer the soil the 
grea^l-will be the clear profit; and if the ground be l<^ft 
too rrcl^ for wheat or barley, it'^can be put to the more pro- 
fitable culture ot hemp. ' 

Tnis plant may be gradually habituated to a more north- 
erly or southerly climate. J^^br instance-, take the Virginia 
corn' and plant it one or two miles farther north every Sundi!» 
nfi«r, and by the time it has got into fcanada it will be the' 
smali Canada corn, 'and vice versa. - 

Thus tar we have thought.proper to insert this article, as 
it s?ood inthe first Edition ot this Work; as we see no 
particular reason to make any essential alteration ; though 
some addition to' the article may, perhaps, be ^cceptable^ ' 

A/method has been mentioned to us, of preventing birds 
and squirrels from pulling up the corn, which is to soak the 
seed, and then rbU it in sulphur, and plant it immediately. 
'.Sulphur is of itself a rnunure ; but by no means so efficai 
cious tor this grain ^aS gypsum ; and in this it should always 
^.rolled, atter being soaked a few hours, before plantings 
e effect jDf this application on the growing crop livery 
^reat indeed. ' ■; 

Perhaps 8k little sulphur mixed 'with the gypsum might 
render the seed sufficiently obnoxious to bifds, See. If not, 
perhaps the better ^ay would be to omit the sulphur, by 
whieiTfjKioregypsurn could be used; aiid, for preventing the ^ 
deprfedations of birds, he. scatter Indian corn over the field, 
at the rate of about two quarts to the acre, after planting; 
on which the birds, &c. will feed, without attempting ta 
pull up any pf the young plants. , 

In soaking the corn lor seetf^tiidd some saltpetre to the 
water u^ed for the purpose; and let as/much gypsum be 
used, in rolling the seed, as can be made to adhere to the 
grains. 

Some have pursued a method of planting rows or drills 
of Indian corn' and potatoes,^ alternately, to much apparent 
advantage; this giving the corn more room for the roots 
to e'xtend in search of food, without any essential injury 
to the intermediate drills of potatoes. Perhaps it might be, 
found, in some instances, as advantageou's to plant pump- 
VJns, as the intermediate rows. 
S'e? Pumpkin. 



182 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

A crop of Indian corn, in tne Southern States, requires 
more ploughing and hoeing, tharv in the Northern, on ac- 
count ofiwe greater length of time requisite to mature the 
corn which is grown' to the south. At the same time, the 
souihern, corn will not yield more, to the acre, than th?it 
whichjs grown to the north. "'■ 

Would it not then be more advantageous to the Southern 
Planter to cultivate the tiorthern corn; as in that case less 
ploii^hing and hoeing would be found requisite ;. and he 
roig^t raise the northern corn^ after fi^st mowing a ^op of 
red-clover off his land; as the clover-'jward, tuinied tinder^ 
would be a fine lay for the corn. crop ? 

We observe that Mr. Bakenpell^ of Montg6mery county, 
Pennsylvania! derives great benefii to his corn-croii, by 
covering the seeds with the earth of, trench-plpughed fur- 
rows^ This, we think, only indicates the propriety of 
Irench-ploughing the land entirely ; by'.which mean double 
its present product would probably be obtained, of every 
kind of crop. 

We will conclude this article, with the insertion of a 
commutiicaiion of Mr. Steele^ of Philadelphia, to Mr. Pe- 
ters, describing his method dI ciiliivating Iddi.jn corn. 

* I plough the ground, carefully, about six inches deep ; 
after which J spread lime, at the rate of forty five or fifty 
bushels to the acre, which I nnix \Viih the sutlace, by the 
use of the qoramon harrow ; uren m»rk the ground, wii^j a 
shallow, furrow, for planting (the corifi-rows five feet api#t)-. 
drop the seed three or four feet from hill to hill, and cover' 
in the usual manner. ' 

' * When the corn is up to the height of three or four 
ipcheS} I give ,.each rovy a stroke with a cortimon harrdw, 
relieving any of the pUnts, that may' be'covcred in the ope- 
t^ration, with a small rake adapted to th6 purpose. When 
this is completed, or within a few" days after, I comTlnence 
what is generally termed moulding. This is performed by 
two strokes, between the rows, with what is called a coul- 
ter-harrow (its teeth being coulters in miniature) which 
completely mellows the ground, by cuiing through the 
furrow, and much closer to the cprn, than it is possible 
with any ot^er instrument, I have used, leaving the vegeta- 
ble surface, turned down in the ploughing, in the' same 
position throughout the season, which affords, to the roots 
of the corn, the best soil for nourishment, in whatever di- 
rection they may be extended. 

* At the season of bigrhilling (in the technical language 
of Pennsylyania) I give my corn a similar course, with the 
sam^ machine, but with small shovels, resemblmg that of 
the shovel-plough, introduced into the places before occupi- 
ed by the coulters j when the dressing is ended. 



;irx\£\iviurv a r^ooAkj x x^i-^ i. 



< It remains oh\y to give you some description of my 
corn-machineyvancl to statj^toyou my reason for adopting 
this method'^f raising Hmny and the consequent advan- 
tages, 

* The frame of my harrow is perhaps no way materially 
di|forent from that of the common triangle corn-harrow; 
the sides about four and a half feet long, wtl'h a spread that 
places the two back teeth forty-two inches' apart. The 
whole number of Ofeeth is seven; the front tooth in the 
centre, and tb« others three aside, at equal distances. A 
light piece of scantling U framed ipto;the sides, in front 
^^^g;J>ack teeth, for the purpose of strengthening the 
^rar^P^and supporting the handles. '^The c6ulter-tooth is 
about ten and a half or eleven inches below the timber, 
forming such angle with the ^shank Us to give the coulter 
that direction best calculated to penetrate the ground^and 
perform the office intended. The shovfel-tooih, beloW the 
shank, is about six inches in length, and toiXr and a half in 
breadth, projecting in that fiosition best adapted for cuting 
gr^ss or weeds, and generally for, cleaning and mellowing 
the surface. The shanks of each ^re filed to the same hole 
and fastened with a^ screw . on the top ; the coulter-tooth 
must be supported ^ith a considerable shoulder behind; 
otherwise it would be bent back, the resistance 'being so 
great as to produce a sufficient draft for two Horses. With 
the shovel-teetb, one Horse can travel vj^ith ease. 

^ The/farm, on which I have uSed this machine, I pur= 
chased, in a very exhausted state, about fifteen years ago; 
and, -designing to improve it with lime, I deenied it of im- 
portance to retain the lime (which I have uniformly intro- 
duced with corn-crop) as much on the surface as possible, 
for the firj>t year. This would not have been the case, if the 
plough had been used; and perceiving that the rMsing of 
corn, in, the usual way, exposed the soil tbWash, my object 
was to prevent this injury by reducing the sutface to a 
perfect plane, havjng neither hill nor furrow. 

* I have uniformly found that the coulter-harrow prepared 
the ground to imbibe and retain a greater quantity of rain- 
water, than in any other way ; in addition to this advantage, 
that a much less surface is exposed to evaporation, than if 
the land had been ploughed into ridges,^ Which in a seas6n 
of drought aiffords a decided advantage; as in the year 1808 
I had nearly, forty* bushels to the acre', when land of the 
same quality, in my neighborhood, farmed in the usual 
manner, had not half iliat quantity. * 

■ ' ^ ^ ' -' . ' f 

* My S9;i iriforms me that the crop of 1808 exceeded forty 
bushels, to iliie^cre. 



184 FARMER'S AbSlSTAI^T- 

. -. ^ ' -i-Jt ■ ' " 

* I have tried both Fall and Spring- ploughing, and am in- 
clined to prefer the latter, as I;^j^ave generally found that, 
by midsummer,/ the sod was aS'well rotcd in the one as' the 
other, and have -experienced much less trouble from the 
rising ofvgTass, than when the ground was ploughed in the 
Full, -^i' '.V,:- . '-■ " .' - ■ " ' • -■ / 

j The f»rm is a thin gravelly loatti, with a mixture of cltiyj 
and, .being in a progressive state of ifnprovement, I have 
jiot iilanted corn a second-time, in the same field, subse- 
(|uent to liming. The average crop may be^tated at forty 
bushels per acre; but with, a light dressing with stable-nria- 
nyre I have riaised sixty. The dung should be turned 
dq\vn ihjhe ploughing. - 

* In order to be somewhat particular in the account I 
have given you, 1 may, perhaps, have failed. in rendering 
the description sufBciently intelligible; but you will l^lea^^ 
to acctpt, it as it is, with my wish that the method I~ have 
yjractised may be tried by others; as, I believe ^ saving of 
labor would not only be gained by its adoption, but also sn 
increase of crop, from ten to twenty per cent, and in seasons 
of drouglit to a. much greater amount.' "^ ■ 

INDJAN. IIEMP, fJfiocynum Cannabimun.) - This 
plant is quite sitr.ilar to the milkweed, havirtg «« similar pod 
of vegetable silk, biit .smaller. It i^iffers mo^i esseniiaily 
from that plant in the superior strength of the cout of its 
steip. . .-• — .■ - ■ ' ' ■■ ' ' ;'•■■' ,' '■- ■ 

% < I caused (says '^v. Genet) to b,e waterroted a consider- 
able quantity of it, id 1814, ynd-obtained an excelent hemp, 
a^ white as snow, remarkable lor its strength, which proved 
to be double that of common hemp. - ^ ^ 

■« Several of my Neighbors (says he) have assured me, 
th^t the ropes and y^arn made from the. fibres of that plant^ 
were- far superiorj for strength and durability, to those 
made of ilax or hemp. 

< That sort of apocynum, being pet^ennial, cbuld be culti- 
vated and multiplied with the greatest advantage,, asid,' being 
mo"»e natural to %1ow and overfldwed lands, could render 
proBiable certain pieces 6f ground which are now" totally 
uijprod^ictive.' ■ 

This plant, ' growing in its natural slate, on swards ^and 
in bogs, is- lower than, the milkweed ; but, cuUivated, it 
would probably grow^ l^'^gci', ^nd liberally reward the atten- 
tion paid ro its.;jimprovement.* 

Mr. GpTic'f also- supposes its leaves to be equally useful; 
witli thost: r.f liie milkweed, for the purpose ot dying, 

*5fe vMlLK^YEEUr 



FARMER*^ ASSISTANT. iS5 



INDIGO. Three species of this plant are cultivated; the 
Wild ( Indigofera argentea) the Gautimala ( disfiermea ) 
and the French (tinctoria.J The f^rst-mennoned is the 
hardiest plant, and affords the best blue; but one of the 
other two species is commonly prefercd, as being more 
productive t and ot these, the French surpasses the Guati- 
mala in quantity, but yields to it in fineness of grain, and 
beauty of color. > ' 

Indigo is a tap-rooted plant, will endure severe drought, 
and is unsuitable for wet lands,. In the Wcstindies, it may 
be railed in poor dry soils; but to most advantage in those 
which are rich. In the Southern States, however,* it re- 
quires a good soil. The more southerly parts of our terri- 
tory are tolerably well adapted for the culture of this plant ; 
but it is more prodtiotive fariber to the South, particularly 
in many of the Westindia Islands, where it is indigenous. 
A bushel of the seed of this plant is sufficient for live 
acres. ' ^ 

The ground is first to be properly mellowed with the 
plough, and then harrowed, when the see^s may be sown 
with a drill, in rows, at the distance of dbout twelve or 
fourteen inches apart, in a manner very similar to that 
which is directed for the culture of onions. 
See Onion. 

And the intervals between the rows are to be kept clear 
of weeds, until such time as thtir further growth will be 
prevented by the growing crop covering the ground. 

it is to be sown as early in the Spring as the ground can 
be properly prepared; and, when the plants are in full 
blossom, they are to be cut ofF a few inches from the 
ground^ when a new growth will come to/njaturity for cut- 
ing, as before directed, which, in this Country, is all that 
can hp expected as the product of a, season. 

In the Westitidies, the plants ar^ cut three, and some- 
times four, times in a season ; but each succeeding cuting 
is much le^s in product than that preceding i^.yhe culiure 
of the crop is to be renewed every Spring, and a sufficiency 
of the first growth is to be left stancliti,g'yor a supply of 
fresh seed. , J ' 

After each cuting, the next process is the manufacture 
of the indigo, which would seem to be much the most, diffi- 
cult operation. , 

We shall not describe ih^ method formerly pursued for 
obtaining the pulp, o| which the indigo is composed, frona 
tke plants; as the firequent failures in this part of the busi- 
ness; together witl) the mortality occasioned by the miasma 
produced by the operation, have greatly discouraged many 
from embarking in the cuUure and manufacture of indigo ; 

24 



1^6 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

We shall therefore merely tort the directions of Dr, 
Roxburghy for extracting th^fcoloring matter from the 

plants, . 

<• By the scalding process (says he) I have aljyays, on a 
small sc^e. made from the common ipdigo plant belter 
inciigo, than I could by fermentation (the old method) and 
ih onefour(h of the time ; andv what is also of great im- 
portance, without the smallest degree of that pernicious 
effluvia, which attends the manufacture of indigo by fer- 
ftjeniation.' .^y <, > ' 

He further observes, lO ^substance, that the Hmdpos, of 
the northern Provinces of Indqstan, make all their indigo 
by boiling the plants, and precipitating the pOlp or coloring 
matter with a cold infusion of the bark of the j^tiil^along 
tree: Yet, says he, ' . / 

* Notwithstanding th-e inferiority of- this bark, as an 
astringent, when its effects are conipared, with those of 
lime Water, I have always found their indigo of an^ excelent 
quality, and very light; a cubic inch weighing only about 
one hundred and ten grains, and being of a. blue violet- 
color. The sufierior quality of this indigo must alone be 
imputed to the nature of tbe process l?y which the color, or 
rather the base of the color, is extracted from the plant.* 

t Besides the s-uperior quality of the Indigo obtained by 
the scalding process, the quantity is generally increased by 
it: Moreover, the heal h of the Laborer in this way is not 
endangered, as in the fermenting process, by constant and 
copious exhalations of putrid miasma. The heat employed 
expels most of thf fixed air during the scalding, which ren- 
ders a very small degree of agitation, and very little of the 
precipitant, necessary. The operation can also be perform- 
ed two or three times a day, upon a large scale; a.nd the 
indigo dries qfefickly, without acquiring any bad scnell^ or 
putrid unwholesome tendency ' 

After the boiling or scalding ha^ been propiprly executed, 
the liquoi*' is to be drawn off, and is then to be agitated or 
churned, '■ 

See Churn, 
Until the coloring matter begins to granulate, or float in 
little fta^es.on ihe water; anrf when this ciirdling or coagu- 
lation has been completely effected, which is usually done 
in about fifteen or twenty minutes, a strong impregnation 
pf lime watejPj Prepared in a vat for the purpose,. is gradually 
to be added, not only_^ to promote the separation, but like- 
wise to fix the color, and preserve tig matter Containing it 
from putrefaction. *^' ; 

In the operaiipn of churning, particular care must how- 
ever be taken,, not to exceed, or to fail short of, the proper 
degree of agitation; as too little of this will leave the indigo 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. isr 

green and coarse ; while too much will give h almost a 
black color. When ihe prbjxjr degree df agitation has been 
given to the liquor, the coloring' matter changes, on adding 
the limewater, Irom a greenish to a fine purple color, which 
is the hut most proper. _ '^^^ 

After these operations, ihe curdled pulp is left undisturb- 
ed till it settles to the bottom, when the water above is 
drawn off, and the indigo is put into smoll linen bags to 
drain; after which it is put into little square bqxes or 
moulds, and dried gradually in th& shade, which finishes 
the mamifaciure. ^ 

The boiling or scalding of the plants, for obtaining the 
coloring matter, may be pertor*med in a wooden vat, mads 
for the purpose, by the aid^of steam, in the manner now 
commonly practised in distiling. 

Mr. ^divardsy in hjs iHstory of the Westindies, a work 
whence? Wvi derive most of the foregoing information on 
this article, says, that although the culture and manufac- 
ture of indigd held out great prospects of gain to those 
embarked in it, stUr the business was mostly given up; 
owing, as it would seem, to the difficulties and unheal^ii- 
ness attending the old fermenting process for obtaining the 
coloring matter. 

It would seem, liowev'er, that the scaldinig process, as 
above described, is Calculated to obviate these difficulties, 
and to render the business profitable. 

In the Westindies, it is found, necessary to change the 
ground' for^ rearing this plant every year; as the* second 
year's crop,^ on the same ground^ is liabk; to be destroyed 
by grubs, which, when changed into winged insects, prey 
On the leaves of the plant. 

Changing the ground for the crop is tdund necessaxy in 
the Southern States, as the ground soon fails for the cul- 
ture, where it bears the plant yearly. 

We have thought proper to direct the drill-culture, for 
corhn)iting the seeds of this plant to the earth, as being 
much th^ cheapest method. 

In the Westindies, it is performed by diging trenches 
two or three inches deep, with the hoe, diibping the seeds 
by hand, and then covering them lightly with the hoe. 

We, hoAvever, see no necessity for trenches being thus 

made, as the beds for the seed; but, if they are requisite, 

'they may be readily, made with the scraper, described under 

1* ifRNiPS ; and then the seeds may be laid and covered, in 

the bottoms of the trenchesrwith the drill. - 

INOCULATING, OR BUDING. This, says mmytfh 
is the^aest method of grafting most kinds of fruit, ^artici?- 
larly stone-fruit, ^ - ^ ' -.''-,■■ •'' 



188 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

He observes that this operation is best learned by prac* 
tke; but gives directions ior' pertorming it, as follows: 
provide a sharp penknife, with the end of the handle flat 
for raising the t)ark ; prepare your slips intended to be in- 
serted j cl^oose a smooth part of the stock, five or six inches 
above the ground, for dwarfs; for haif'Standatdsy about 
three feet ; but for standards^ about six feei ; cut horizon- 
tally across the stock aboui un inelt in length, and from 
that slit the bark downwards about two inches, so as that 
the incisions be in the form of the letter T ; but be careful 
not to cut so deep as to wound the stock. :-. 

After having cut off- the leaf fioai the bud, leaving the 
foot stock remaiiiing, you make a cross cut about half an 
inch below the eye, and with jour knife slit off the bud, 
with part of the wood to it, in form of an eschutcheon ; 
puii off with your kuiie that part of |he wood which was 
taken with the bud, obser\^ing that' the e^e of ,the bud be 
left ; for those that lose their eyc^s in' striping, should be 
rejectedl' -,■■ ' -. r / .. .v 

Then, having gently raised the bark of the stoqk, insert 
the biid ; place jijt smooth between the rind of the stock and 
the wood J and, having lited it in as esfaCtly as possible, wind 
the whole closely found witii bass-mat made soft by soaking 
in water (soft ropeyarn will perhaps answer ,as well) begin- 
ing at the under pan of the slit, ^nd proceeding to the top, 
minding n6t to bind round the eye of the bud, which should 
be left open. ' 

In three^ or four weeks, you Will perceive which have 
taken, by their appearing frtsh, and then the bandages 
round these should be loosed* In April following, cut off 
the stock, sloping, three inches above the bud; fasten the 
shoot proceedii>g from the bud to 4:he stump of the stock 
for the ensuing season,, and the nexlt seasoi^ take off th^t 
* Stump close above the bud. ^ ' 

The time for inoculating is, from the middle of June to 
the middle of ^ugust, or ratfier at the time when the bark 
raises easily, Mnd the buds will come off well from the 
wood. The most general rule is, when you observe, the 
buds formed at the extremity of the same y6ar*s. shoots; 
for then they have finished their Sprin^^ growth. Cloudy 
weather, and mornings and evenings, are the best for the 
operation. 

Forsyth says, the slips or outings to be used for buding 
should not be thrown into water. He adds, that all treids 
of the same genus, which agree in^jljeir flavor and fruit, 
will take upon each other. All the mit^/fearing trees will 
thertfqre grow on each other, and the same may be ob- 
served of all the plumb' bearing trees, including the almond, 
peach, nectarine, apricot, See. - 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT, 189 

To the foregoing directions, which are also tliose of Mr. 
Miller J Mr, Forsyth has added drawings, which are calcu- 
lated better to expUio thejirocess of inoculating. 

INSECTS. Immense^numbers of these prej^upon the 
labors of the Farmer, against the ravages of which it is, in ^ 
many instances, difficult to provide adequate remedies, j^ 
Such, however, as have been discovered, shall be noticed, ^ 
as something is said t)f the different kinds of those insects , 
which are found tiiost troublesome. x - 

Some vegetables are offensive to all insects; such as the 
elder,^ Especially the dwarl kjnd4.th6 onion, tansy, and tobac- 
co, except tb the worm that pr^ys on thai piant. The juice 
of these iijiay therefore be applied,-with effect, in repeling 
insects; and sometimes the plants themselves, vvhile green, 
or when reduced to powder,'- particularly the latter, when 
made into snuff. '"^ 

Set aiy onion in the c^tre of a hill of cucumbers, 
squashes, melons,- ^c. and it will effectually keep off the 
yellow, striped bug, that preys upon those plants while 
ybutig*^'- ' ; ,'' ■■ ' ' ■ ' 

' No doubt a plant of tobaccoV set in the same way, would 
answer a ^itfiilai^'purpose ; or, perhaps, to sow a few tobacco 
or onion-seeds in the hill, when planting, would have the 
same effe<:t; and the, growing plants from these seeds 
could be taken away, when no longer wanted as pro- 
tectory. , . ■/' 

Of other substances, suTphur is perhaps the most effect- 
ual, as every kind of insect has an utter aversion Va it. 

Powdered quick-lime. is deadly to many insects, and per- 
haps offensive to all. V , 

The ^me may be observed of soot, ; wood-ashefsj?^ and 
(Other substances which are Strongly alkaline ; and also of 
common salt finely powdered, brincj old urine, &c. , " 

Calomel is also deadly to insects; and camphor, and tere- 
bintbine^ substances, are offensive to them. 

After premising thus much, we shall now speak of in* 
sects separately, and begin with the , . 

Cankerworm. The female of this insect comes out of 
the ground very early in the Spring,' and ascends the tree 
to deposit lier eggi^, which she does in suitable places in 
the bark| where they are brought forth, and the youi^g 
brood live on the leaves of the tree! 

The only effectual remedy is, to prevent the insect frotn 
ascending the tree j^,ahd this may be done in various ways ; 
but ipe easiest^ per^apsi is as follows : , 

First scraps off the shaggy bark rou^d the body of the 
tree, to the width of two or three inches; then make up a 
mixture of oil, or blubber, with suitable propqrtictis of sul» 



190 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

phur and Scotch snuff; and with a brush lay this on tlie 
scraped part, forming a ring round the tree an inch or two 
Wide; and no insect will ever attempt to pass this barrier, 
as long af the composition has i^ny,; considerable moisture 
left in it. «= ' - '• 

Let it be repeated when it ibclinesto harden; though 
perhaps this is not necessary. Let it be done early in the 
Spring, 4)efore the insect comes from' the ground 

Another method, which it is believed will be found 
equally tlTectual, thoui^h. attended with more trouble, is to 
scrape oft' the shaggy bark froirr the body of the treci and 
then whitewash that part .^11 with lime and wat^r'and a 
little sulphur added. '^ 

In place of this, however, Mr. Forsyth directs that the 
body of t^e tree be covered with a composition oiold urine, 
kept some time for the purpose, soapsuds, and fresh cow- 
dung; and this he say* will keep ofF all insects. Let it be 
laid on plenri fully. 

Another method^ we have heard recommended^ is to 
fasten, a strip of sheepskin, with the wool outwards, round 
the body of the tree, lakmg care that no place be left for 
the insect to creep up between the strip and the bark.' Xh& 
•wool should be frequently combed to keep it loos^. 

A streak or ring of tar made round the body is also 
effectual, a^ long as the taf remains soft; but, as it soon 
becomes so hardened on the ekteriol^ that the insect can 
crawl over, it requires to be Repeated very frequently; 
Perhaps such a ring of tar and oil, or blubber, niixed to- 
other, would answer belter. , ■" 

Lastly, a strip of oiled paper put round the tree, with thV 
lower edge projecting out considerably, forms a barrier 
which the insect„cannot pass. Let tlie lower edge of the 
paper be kept well oiled. 

In' regard to all insects which are injurious to trees, by 
climbing them, and comnniting depredations upon them, in 
various ways, we belieye, from the most correct information 
we have been enabled to obtain, from various sources, that, 
by taking the earth away from the roots of the trees, very 
early in the Spring, and destroying whatever may appear-to 
be the Elbode of any insects; and then returning the eSt-th 
back, mixed with a small quantity of sulphur, sprinkling 
some of this upon the surface, will keep every iosect from 
ascendihg any such tree. 

The effeot of sulphur, for this purpose, is very durable* 
Probably one operation of this kind ^ill last for several 
years ; jthougb, on this point, ^ve have%b particular inform- 
ation. Other repelants of' insects may be found' repelants 
oqly for a, time, more or less limited ; but perhaps may an- 
swer the purpose for oae Spring; such as quick- lime, fine 
# 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. l&i 

salt, old urine, strong soapsuds, a strong decoction of tobac- 
co, onions, &c. &c. Let' either of the four lastmentioned 
ingredients be, applied, boiling hoi, to the roots, after first 
taking the earth away, as before mentioned. 

CuRCULio. This is a bug, about thp size of that which 
eats iino tht pea, and has proved very troublesome to most ^ 
of the smoothskined stone fruits, and even to peaches, ap^ 
pies, and pears, in diflTerent parts of 'the country contiguoits ' 
to Philadelphia. It has, also made its appearance about 
Albany. ^ ^^ ,^ ,,:;., 

It ascends the trees in tht^ SpHog, and as the fruit ad- 
vances it makes a wound in tho^^kfn, and there de'i)osits the 
embryo; from which a mag^ is first produced. This 
preys upoqxthe fruit until ii^diea. and falls ofFj when the ^ 
maggot makes its way into the earth, and is there changed 
into a bug, .which is ready t9^ ascend the trce^, the next 
Spring, and mak^ its deposit in the fruit, as befor^* 

One method of keeping this and all other insects from 
trees, as. practised by Col. JSfichols, near Easton, is to tie 
a small bag of 'comnion salt round the ti^ee. A ring put 
round th^ tree, of a mixture of grease, or blubber, mixed 
with salt, and iiome ot the other ingredients before men- 
tioned, would' perhaps answer a better^ purpose, and be at- 
tended with less trouble. 

A recipe of his, which he says he ha% practised oti 
peachtrees with advantage, in regard to their health, is: 

* Take away the dirt from around, the root, and where 
you find gum issuing out, there you "will also find a white 
maggot, which is carefully to be tuken away; then wash the 
body and, roots with strong brine, which you will repeat 
now and then, ih the Spring and Summer.' 

We will mention two other methods, whi<ih are said to 
be infallible, for keeping all insects from' "trees: On^ is, 
bore a hole in the body of the tree, and fill the hole with 
mercurial ointment (ungji^ntum coeruUnmJ and cork it up 

light. ' / '.;- V '. ; ,,, ' - . , 

The, other is, bore a hole in the north side of the body 
of the tree, and fill it with spirits of ittirpentine, and cork it 
up, jas before. Where the latier article is pdt into the hole, 
it should be bored slanting downwards, to keep this liquid 
from runihg out before t1ie cork can be put i». ^ 

If these remedies are effectual, and we have considerable 
confidence in them, it mpst be bvving to the essence Of- 
either of- these substances becoming diffdsed throughout the 
tree^ and thus rendering, it noxious to insects. 

Caterpillars. Me abov^' directions, for ke€iping Can- 
kerwqms from^ trees, are equally, applicable to these ia- 
sects. 



192 FARMER'S ASSISTANT, 

When a nest of these is formed, run a p^le into it, tyrist 
it round till the nest and its consents are wraped round the 
pole, and bring the whole down and kill tfie worms. Let 
this be done early in the morning, when the worms are all 
in the nest. If any escape this operation, repeat it when 
they have rebuilt the nest. ' : 

Where the nests haye been sviffered to remain till the 
insects have left them, young brbods for the ensuing year 
will, the next Spring, be found qn the trees in the chrysalis 
state, under the shelter ota dr,y curled leaf or two, bound 
Ivith filaments like cobwebs. Tliese should be searched for 
and destroyed. y^, ^ " 

It is said that Caterpillars' will take shelter un^er woolen 
rags, when put on trees where they resort; from which 
they can be easily taken and destroyed. 

GrRtJB^., Large maggot's produce dv from the eggs of a 
sjieciesdt the Butterfly, very injurious ta Indian corn, while 
young, by eating the roots. Frequent ploughihgs, manur- 
ing the lan<^ with limt, soot, dshes, or <^^lty all tend much to 
keep thena, out of the soil, j , ''->■'■ 

Most vOi the articles before Mentioned, as beingf^ofensive 
to insects) either boiled in, or diluted with, water, and that 
applied to the hills, especially just before a rain, will quick- 
ly drive the Grubs away. 

Top, or Spindleworms, White worqns, resembling 
Grubs, found in the central hole which , is formed by the 
leaves of Indian corn^ and they there, eat off the, stein 
which forms the top of the plant. They are mostly to b« 
found near barnyards, and in rich spots.' They are disco- 
vered by their excrement appearing on the leaves. Sprink- 
ling the corn with a weak lye of wood,- ashes will extirpate 
them. 

BlackworiAs. Ash-colored worms, with black stripes 
on theif backs. W,heii full gi:own, they are of the thickness 
of a goose quill, and about an inch and a quarter long. 
They hide in the soil by day, and con^mit their depredations 
by night.. They eat off young plants above ground, and 
freqitently endeavor to draw them under. It is said that 
maniiting the ground with salt will drive them from it,>and 
that hme and ashes will also have nearly a similar effect. 

Redv^^orms. These are slender, about an inch lon|^,.with 
a hard coat, and pointed head. ■ I'hey eat off wtieatv barley, 
and oats above the crown of the roots; and they also .eat 
through turnips, potatoes, £:«. No adequate Remedy is 
known, unless it be manuring wiii|^the manures before 
mentiofled, which are offensive to, aH. insects. Sumvner- 
fallowiiigs are also recommended,, ^s depriving them of 
their requisite food. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 193 

Palmerworms. About, half an inch in length, with many 
legs, and very nimble. They give to appletrecs the same 
appearance that the Cankerworm does. Mr. Dean says, 
that great numbers of them appeared, in the year 1791, in 
Cumberland, Massachusetts, and ale off all the leaves of 
the trees, except the membraneous parts; but that next 
year they disappeared. They let themselves down from 
the trees by threads, similar to the Spider. No remedy 
known. 

TiMBERWORMS. The smailier kind merely eat into the 
sap of wood, and turn it into powder-post, as it is commonly 
called. Felling timber about ^e middle of Winter, the 
time it has least sap in it, will obviate this difficulty. 

The large Boringvvorm takes its residence chiefly in pine ^ 
timber. They are hatched in the cavities of the bark ; and 
being small, when they Qnter the wood, thevgrow IjS^ger as 
they proceed, till their boring may be heara at a considera- 
ble distance. If the trees be scorched in a light flume, says 
Mr. Deane^ or steeped in salt-water, it will de^rjpy these 
worms, or prevent their entering the wood. 

The same Author also makes miention of formidable 
armies of worms which, in the year 1770, overran the 
county of Cumberland, about the middle of July. They 
striped the vegetables of their leaves, leaving only the 
stems; were extremely voracious ; moved in apparent haste, 
and all in the same direction; crawled over houses, kc. un- 
less they found an entrance. Other parts of the Eastern 
States have since experienced their ravages. 

The best security found against them was, to stop their 
course by trenches>,ihaving their sides leaning over, ojat 
of which they coM not climb, after they had got into 
them.u ^ 

Hessian-feV. We^il known for its ravap:es in wheat. 
Remedy: Immerse the seed-wheat ten or fifteen seconds 
in boiling-hot water; cool it suddenly; dry it, with lime or 
gypsum sprinkled' upon it, and sow i:|*^m mediately. This 
process will assist its growth, in addition to its killing the 
nits of the fly, which, by a good glass, are said to be dis- 
cernibte near the sprouts of the grains that are infected. 
This remedy stands well attested by "several publications, 
and is believed to be effectual. 

This insect appears to be now on the decline, and its 
duration will probably be found to be temporary. Though 
we have given it a German appellation, it is very doubtful 
whether it ever was k^^n in Germany or any other part 
of Eiipop'e. , ^ ,;, 

Maggots. Troublesome to the roots of cabbages, tur- 
nips, and radishes. Give the ground a previous manuring 
with salt, which it is believed will be found effectual. 

* ^ 



19i FARMER^s ASSISTANT. 

■«• 
Some weak brine applied to the roots of the plants,<^nst 
after a rain, is also recommended. It should not be to© 
strong^, lest it injure the growth of the plants. 

Yellow-striped Bug. Formidable to the young plants 
of cucumber, Sec. In addition to what htjs already been 
said, of the remedies for keeping off these intruders, we 
w<;^uld recommend sprinkling the plants with a little sul- 
phur, or Scotch snuff, which it is believed will be found 
equally efficacious. 

We have understood, also, that sprinkling the plants with 
gypsum has been found to answer an excelent purpose, as 
well for keeping off the inject as for manuring the growing 
plants. 

Turnip-fly. This insect eats the seed-leaves of the 
young turnip-pjants, and thus destroys them. One remedy 
i^, to s6iv the ground with a mixtxire of old and new seed, 
and, as these will come up at different times, a part of the 
one or the other will stand a better chance of escaping. 

SotviiAa suitable proportion of tobacco-seed with the 
crop will, no doubt, E^nswer ^very purpose, for keeping off 
this insect. But, as common salt is found to be an excelent 
manure for this crop, we would recommend about three or 
four bushels of this article, made fi^ne, with as many pounds 
of sulphur, and perhaps one or two of Scotch snuff, well 
mixed together, to be sown on the ground, just as the 
plants are coming up^ and this, we venture to say, will be 
found effectual in keeping off these insects. 

A flock of ducks,, let into the turniplield, is also very 
good, as they will destroy the insects, without injuring the 
plants. 

Rolling the ground, where it is smooth, is also beneficial, 
iQ protecting the crop, as this serves to close up t&e hid- 
ing-places of the insect. * 

It should be remembered, however, that, where turnips 
are cultivated extensively, the crop is much less liable to 
injury, from these Injects, than where only small pieces are 
sown. In the former case, the insects, being the same in 
number, have a wide extent to feed upon; and therefore do 
not feed so closely. In the latter, their pasture betng but 
small, they eat all off before them. 

Garden-flea. Very destructive to young cabbage- 
plants, while in the seed-leaf. Remedy : Sow some onion 
or tobacco^SeedS with the seeds of the plant; or, sprinkle 
some sulphur or snuff on the growing plants. Soapsuds 
sprinkled over theni is also good. ^ 

Lice. These infest cabbages, particularly; but are de- 
stroyed by the frosts. They are easily extirpated by smoak* 
particularly that of tobacco. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 195 

Weavel. a little black bug-, very destructive to wheaL 
cithtr in barns or graneries. On thrusting your hand into 
a bin of wheat infested with them, considerable warmth will 
be felt; but, as they are usually collected together, every 
part of the heap or bin should be examined. 

There are various ways of keeping wheat clear of this 
insect, after it has been threshed out and put in bins. Mr. 
UHommedieu found that a sprinkling of lime with wheat, 
infegted mth them, in his bin, soon drove them away. The 
lime can be afterwards winnowed out. 

Sulphur or snufF, put up in little papers, or bags, and 
properly distributed among the wheat, in the bin, will keep 
them out, or drive them out when they have got posses- 
sion. 

A plant of henbane has the same effect ; and so has the 
leaves and wood of the lombardy poplar. A bin made of 
boards of this wood will never have a Weave! in"j|t. 

Take wet linen cloths^ and lay them over a heap or bin 
of wheat, with Weavel in it, and they will soon come jout 
of the wheat, and get upon the cloths; when, byidyjing these 
in water again, the insects are readily destroyed^' ^^ 

They may also be sifted out of wheat, by a sieve which 
will let them through and retain the wheat. 

It would seem that the readiest way to keep them out 
' of mows of wheat, before threshing, would be to mix little 
pieces of the lombardy poplar every where through the 
mow, in laying the sheaves away. Perhaps common salt 
is as offensive to this insect, as to most others; and, if so, 
to sprinkle some among the sheaves, when laying them 
down, might answer the double purpose, of keeping out the 
Weavel and improving the' straw for fodder. 
^IGrasshopers. • Prodigious quantities of tKesc are some 
years generated in upland mowing- grounds. Upland pas= 
tures do not produce so many, owing probably to the feet 
of the cattle destroying many, before they are brought forth, u- 
Low wet meadows or pastures seldom produce many of 
them. The only known remedy against them, and it is 
sometimes very inadequate, is to destroy them by raising 
large flocks of Turkies and other poultry, which feed on 
them. 

Lice on Cattle, and Ticks on Sheep, may be added to 
the catalogue of destructive insects. W^here Colts and 
young Neat-cattle become lousy, by reason of poor keeping, 
or otherwise, the Lice are to be destroyed by oiling the 
creature, or washing it with a decoction of tobacco; and 
they should have bSlter keeping, to prevent a return of the 
Lice. 4 

And where a Sheep becomes full of Ticks, which will 
sometimes kill the animal if not removed, they may be ds- 



fe. 



196 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

f troyed by a fumigation of tobacco-smoke, as is descnbed 
under Sheep. 

But the easiest method is, to part the wool of the animal 
on each side ot its spine, from its head to its tail, and drop 
in some Scotch snuff along in each opening, and this will 
soon free the Sheep of its vermin. Where it requires im- 
mediate relief, however, recourse should be had to the 
mMhod fir (5 1 mentioned. g 

tfee Peachtree, for an effectual method, practised by 
Mr. Bayley. for preventing the injuries done by a Worm to 
that tree, in Virginia. 

For destroying the black Bug, that eats into the pea, 9ec 
that article. ^ 



m 



JAUNDICE. See OvERFi&bw^NG of the Gall, and 
Yellows. 

JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE (Hdianthus Tuberosus.) 
This IS a hardy perennial plant, with a large bulbous root. 
The stalk grows to a considerable height. It is cultivate^ 
by the roots, in the manner of potatoes. ^ The roots are par- 
ticularly useful for feeding Swine, when boiled, and are 
said to be very productive. One Cultivator found its pro- 
duce to be about four hundred and eighty bushels to. an 
acre, without manure. Another raised between severity 
and eighty tons from an acre. They will grow well in 
almost any dry soil, even if it be poor. When cut, and 
ground in a cidermill, they make good food for Horses, 
with the addition of ^a little salt. Mr. Legaux, of Spring- 
mill, Pennsylvania, raises this root from Dutch seed, and 
has had them eight and nine inches in diameter. He says 
they are easily kept through Winter in the ground, nothing 
being requisite further than to dig a trench round them, tc> 
prevent the water injuring them. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 197 



KILLING OF BEASTS. But little need be said on this 
subject, as butchering is only to be learned by practice. 
Bui the cruel manner in which butchering is often per- 
formed is deserving of some animadversion. The killing 
of blasts for our use is lawful ; but surely it is not so to 
torture them. He who, in the act ot taking the life of an 
unoffending creature, deals not the stroke of death with 
mercy, must either have become callous from inveterate 
habit, or in feeling must -fee of little higher grade than the 
animal against which his hand is raised. v^v 

It is believed, howevef, that there is a rightar^ a wrong 
time for killing Neat-cattle, Swine, and Sheep. 'The right 
time, allowing them to be well fated, is when their meat 
shrinks the least in boiling; and the wrong, when it shrinks 
most. Some say the former is the case during the increase 
of the moon ; and the latter, during its decrease. 

That this planet has its effect on the bo'dies of animals, 
may readily be believed, from the mere circumstance of 
lunacy among Men. 

It would be well to make some accurate experiments, to 
ascertain the truth of this matter, by having animals, in- 
tended for butchering, killed at different times^ say, at the 
fiAof the moon, at its change, during its increase, and its 
decrease ; and then, by boiling a given number of pounds 
of the same parts of each together, and weighing each 
separately after boiling a given time, the result would be 
tolerably conclusive, as to the -right time of killing. The 
experiment should be repeated, if, the first was not con- 
clusive. 



LAMPAS. An excrescence in the roof of a Horse's 
mouth, which hinders him from feeding. Young Horses 
are most liable to it. The usual cure is, applying a hot 
iron to the swollen part. Mr. Gibson says thai care must 



19S FARMER'S ASSISTANT, 

be taken, not to penetrate so deep as to scale the boneSbat 
lies under the upper bars of the mouth, as this would be 
very injurious to the animal. 

Mr. Peters^ of Pennsylvania, after remarking that lampas 
is caused by fever in the Horse, and that the swelling 
should be allayed by reducing the fever, says that he never 
wopld suffer a Horse to be burned in the mouth, as he had 
known them to be ruined by repetitions of this jpperation. 
Sometimes a mess or two of hard Indian corn, he says, 
banishes the swelling. -t 

LAYERS. Trees and shrubs that yield no seed in this 
climate, and which cannot be propagated by slips ocAput- 
ings, may nevertheless be propagated by layers. The^an- 
ner of doing it is as follows : Take shoots of the last year's 
growth, bend them to the earth, and burry them half a foot 
deep in a good mellow soil; fa^en them with hooks to 
preyent their rising, and bend the tops so as to bring them 
above the i'iiiPface. A slit upv^ards^ should be made in that 
part of the twig which lies deepest, or a wire drawn tightly 
round it there, to prevent the sap from mounting too fast. 
Lilt^the ground be covered to keep it moist, and let it be 
watered if necessary. When the twigs have struck root, 
they may be cut off in the Spring and transplanted into the 
nursery. 

The time for laying evergreens is July or August, and 
October for deciduous trees. Many herbaceous plants may 
also be propagated in this way. 

LICE. See Insects. 

LIMESTONE. Sec Earths. *^ 

^"^ LOAM. See Earths. 

LOCUST ("Robind.) This is a very valuable tree for 
cultivation, as it will grow well on any poor barren sandhill, 
and indeed in every kind of dry soil, where the climate is 
not too cold. A sandy loam or gravelly loam is best suited 
:^, for it. It will cause grass to grow on the poorest soil j so 
that ground planted with these trees answers the double 
purpose of forest and pasture. The trees will acquire a 
very considerable size in fifteen years, and in about twenty- 
five years are full grown. 

The timber is excelent for the trunnions and knees of 
vessels, for cogs for mills, and for many other purposes, 
where hardness and durability are required. For posis for 
fences, it will last fifty or sixty years, and for firewood it. is 
also excelent. On the whole, coniiidering all the good 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. i§9 

qualities of the locust, it may be accounted the most profit- 
able which the Farmer can cultivate. 

See Forests, for an easy method of cultivating this 
tree. 

It is said that immersing the seeds of this tree for half a 
minute in boiling-hot water, and then cooling them before 
planting, will make them sprout very suddenly, and grow 
two feet high the first year. 

.* t ■ . 

LOMBARDY ?0?LAR CPofiulus.J This tree acquires 
its full size in about twenty years ; by which time It will 
contain half a cord of wood. It is grown at pre^nt merely 
for ornament; but, when firewood becomes ipecessary to be 
plaiiifed, probably this tree may be thought wbrth cultivating 
for fuel. It will not, indeed, make fuel equal in quality to 
that of the locust; but, as it grows faster, its inferiority of 
quality may perhaps be compensated by the rapidity of iis 
growth. It must, howeVcr, be dried before it will be fit for 
fuel, as in its green state it will not burn to any advantage, 
It is easily raised from^slips or cutings, and will grovj^ on 
almost any soil. 

In France and Italy, this-^tree is cultivated and trimed up 
for beams and other timber for buildings; but probably it 
will grow larger in thoser countries than in this State, as 
the climate there Is more friendly to its growth. 

LUCERNE. See Grasses. 



M. 

MADDER (Rubia Tinctorium.) The following direc- 
tions for raising this plant are copie'd from * THe J^mfiorium 
of jirt8.' '' 

< This plant may be propagated, either by offsets or 
seeds. If the latter method is prefered, the seed should 
be of the true Turkish kind, which is called lizari, in the 
Levant. On a light thin soil, the culture cannot be car- 
ried on to any gre^ profit. The soil in which the plant 
delights is a rich sanely loam, being three feet in depth or 
more. » * 

* The ground, being first made smtooth, is divided into 
beds four feet wide, with alternate alleys half as wide again 
as the beds. ThQ reason of this extraordinary breadth of 
the alleys will appear presently. In each alley is to be r 



200 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

shallow channel for the convenience of irrigating the v^jiolc 
field, Ecc. That part of the alley which is not occupied hiay 
be sown with legunnes. ' 

* The madder-seed is sown broadcast, in the proportion 
of from twenty-five to thirty pounds per acre, about the end 
of April. In a fortnight or three weeks, the young plants 
begin to appear ; and, from this time to the mouth of Sep- 
tember, care must be taken ta keep the ground well water- 
ed and free from weeds. 

'If the plants are examined in Autumn, they will be 
found 'surrounded with small yellow offsets, at the depth of 
two inches; and early in September the earth from the 
alleys is to oe 4ug out, and laid over the plants of madder, 
to the height Iclf two or three feet.'^ With this th^^st 
year's operation ceases. 

* The second year's work begins in May, with giving the 
beds a thorough weeding ; and care must be taken to sup- 
ply them with plenty of water, during the Summer. In 
September the first crop of seed will be ripe; at which time 
the stems of the plants may be.mowti down, and the roots 
covered a few inches with earth, taken as before out of the 
alleys. 

' The weeding should take pTace as early as possible in 
the Spring of the third year ; an^Fthe crop, instead of being 
left for seed, may be cut three times, during Summer, for 
green fodder; all kinds of cattle being remarkably fond 
of it. \ ' ^ 

* In October the roots are taken up, the offsets carefully 
separated, and immediately used to form a new plantation ; 
and the roots, after being dried, are sold, either without 
further preparation, or ground to a coarse powder, and 
sprinkled with an alkaline lye. ., ; 

t The roots loose four- fifths of their weight in drying'; 
and the produce of an acre is about two thousand pounds 
weight of dry saleable madder.* 

Madder usually sells for about thirty-two dollars per hun- 
dred; so that the prSdiice of an acre, as above stated, would 
^'amount to six hundred and forty dollars. 

MANGEL-WURTZEL (Beta Altissima.) There are 
varieties of this species of the beet, some of which are 
more productive than others. Mr. Peters says those of 
a rosecolored skin, with the interior solid and white, not 
laminated and mottled, like the common beet, are the best. 
He says it*is better than the common beet for the table; 
and that its leaves wJaile young are, for this purpose, fully 
equal to the Spinage. 

* IncheSi we suspect it should be;, Instead of feet. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 201 

He gives a preference to this root, having tried all others, 
partictilarly for fating Neat-cattle, Sheep, and Store-hogs; 
and says that to some Horses it is grateful and nutritive, 
though some refuse to eat it. 

See Pumpkin, for a method of learning any Horse to 
eat that food, which no doubt will answer equally well for 
this. v^ ♦ 

The leaves, he says, which are very abundant, are supe- 
rior to any other green hprbage, now in common use, both 
in quality and quantity, for^oiling. ** 

See Soiling But see also Guineagrass. 

They may be frequently striped off during thtf^^season, 
leaving, the heart shoots, or leaflets, and the |pots will, on 
this J^bunt, grow the better. Some mow theW off, taking 
care not to cut too close to the roots. ^ 

Mr. Peters cultivates this root, with success, on loamy 
land, with some inixture^ot sand in it. The land was 
formerly trench-ploughed. Rich, deep, loamy^oils are 
properly adapted* to its culture; and on such,^e; think, 
there can be no d'^'Vibt of t!!s Seing more piofitahl^ to culti- 
vate than any ofeer root, especially when the lekves are 
used for soiling. ^ '" 

Steamboiling the roosts renders them more nutritive and 
efficient for the piijrpose of fating cattle. Those which are 
stored for Winter and Spring-usejmust be protected from 
frost; though, if .they should become frozen, they may be 
u^ed for cattle, before they have thawec), by extracting the 
frost from them in water, in the manner directed for 
turnips. ^ 

5(?e-^TuRNip. 

The roots should not be stored away, until tl>e moisture 
on ^he exterior part has been dried : They may , then be 
kept in dry sand, to protect them from frost; qr they may 
be kept without sand, in a place sufficiently guarded against 
frost, as described under Turnip; in whiph way they vi'iU 
^^^ re ma in fresh and sound,' as^ long as they are , wanted lor the 
"Winter 'and Spring supplyi 

Having observed thus much, on the culture of this excel- 
cnt root, we shall give the Reader^an extract frorn the 
third Voluip^iDf the ' Memoirs ot the Philadelphia Society 
for promoting Agriculture;* which we, presume will be 
^und sufficient to teach the Inexperienced the proper 
mode of ciiUure, and ta^nvince every one of the superioi* 
cxceience of this root, "fe, ,. , , :' 

[The following account of methods used in the cultivation 
of the improved, beetrooty or mangle wurtzel, is talfen from 
a recent publication by Mr. Pinder Simpson, of the colnuv 

2^ 



>^»' 



20^ FARMlSR's ASSISTANT. 

©f Essex, England, 1814* Experiment must defeWe to 
what degree, these statements will apply to the cuitu|^ of 
this root in our Country. 

Fifty tons have been raised on an acre, in England. The 
produce of one-tenth of an acre will, keep a Bullock fating^ 
fourteen weeks. Dry fodder must accompany this green 
food. The produce of six acres will faten sixty Bullocks ; 
allowing each one hundred pounds per day; as appears in 
the statements made in this publicauon. 

1. In broad-cast, on striin^^-land, spade- irenched, ten 
inches 4^ep, leaving the plants after hoeing nearly fifieen 
inches apart each way. Produce, per acre, fifty tons. 

2. Transplanted in rows, three feet apart, th^plants 
[eighteen inches apart in each row. Produce, p^^cre^ 

twenty-two tons. 

3. Dibbling the seed, in ro^s two feet apart, and the 
plants left twelve inches apart in each row. Produce, per 
'acre, forlj^ eight tons. , 

By these difTcrent methods^ results will prove which is 
preferable, lis great advantages over turnips are shown 
in -every way, as well on i^ccount of the beet being more 
nutritious, as its not being siibject to the fly, or other an- 
noyances to turnip-crops. Nor is the expense of cultiva" 
tion so great ]; .. 

For the inferrtiMion and guidance of tliose Occupiers of 
land*5^ who may be desirous of cultivating fhe improved beet- 
root upon strong land, the next chapter will contain a parti- 
cular account of the method qsed in cultivating ^hat root 
upon strong land at ^edfords. The n^ethod there staled, 
is \\^<x\. which has been found, on three years' trial, to be 
least expensive in the beginmg,. and most ^profirable ,||,^the 
end. The cultivation of this root is earnestly recommended 
to the attention of all Persotis farming strong lands with a 
view to profit. It should never be forgoien, that forty- eight 
tons, the produce of only a single acre, of this rdot, will^ 
make ten Bulfocks fat enough for the Butcher; and that six 
ajjres, of equal produce, will faten sixty Bullocks; that the 
profit on each Bullocl^ will be considerable; and that, when 
the business of feeding is over, the yard will^^e full of rich 
dung ; J^either should it be forgoten, that the Tenant^ 
who sells his straw, cannot partake of any of these advai^ 
itages. % • ■ ^ \ 

In proof of ttvis assertion, the fmlowing facts are submit- 
©d for consideration ; 

* The adv^^rtisement prefixed to the book states, that the ob^ 
servations were made upon crops of the root grown upon a farm ?* 
Bedfords, in the county of Essex, containing six hundred acres, be- 
longing to John HeatoTi) Esq. and i;i his own occupation. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 203 

iilk^Htaton bought two lean Welch Bullocks, at Harlow- 
"buah fair, on the 9th ot September , They cost togeiber 
thirty- four pounds. They were pastured on the RoWens 
till the 20'h of November following, when they w^re tied 
up, and ted with beetroot and oat-siraw till the 9th ot Feb- 
ruary following; when they were sold together, in Rum- 
ford market, for the sum ot fitly pounds; yielding, in 
twenty-two weeks, a profit of sixteen pounds, which is 
equal to 7s 3d per week, foiij^ach Bullock 

These two Bullocks wereded up twelve weeks each, in 
which time they ate eight tons, two hundred Weight of 
beetroot, the produce of only one-sixth part of a# acre of 
Iand,^^uliivated according to the method ^e<W\iil%tided 'm 
the f^Howing chapter. 

The method used in t^e cultivation of the imfiroved JBeet'^ 
ropti ufyon strong land, at Btdfords. , , ' - 

It may be "proper, in the firiit glace, to stJ#*^hat*is 
meant by strong land. T^e^silrface-soil is lo^my^tt^^d. from 
four to twelve mches deep, upon a bed pf strong o4ay mixed 
with gravel. It is too heavy, and generally too wet, in the 
Winter, even* for Sheep io eat a crop of turnips on the 
ground; a«d, although good turnips are grown,, upon it, it 
is always necessary to draw them for the Sheep^ stalUed 
cattle, or for cattle in the yards. *The oground is prepared 
to receive the s^ed, and cleaned, in the same way as it 
would have be^n for Swedish turnips. As that part of tMte 
business is solved known^^ all- Farmers, it is not necessa- 
ry to enter into detail upon'it/ ''■^'- 

In the tniddle, or latter entl, of the month of April, the 
furrows are set out with the plough, twb f6,et apaH, and 
dot^e-ploughj^d; that is, the plougth' returns on che fiirrov^ 
to the poini whence it sjdt ou<^ f6rming a ridge betweea 
the furrows. 

Double-ploughing with a commoa plotigh is j^^efered to 
Ig single-ploughing Witb a double-mouklboard plough, because 
it affords a greater depth of loose earth than the double- 
mouldbpard plough would produce. i. 

In these furrows, the manure, whicH should be in a roten 
state, is d^|)Osutd, after the rate of six cubic yards to an 
acre.'' 

The ridges are then^split by tl>e plough goin^ and re- 
turning the same way atS^before mentioned, leaving the ma- 
nure immediately andie^^the middl^'of the new ridges. A 
light roller is then passed along thc^ ridges, in the middle 
of which the seed is dibbled, so that the plants may re- 
ceive all the benefit which can be derived from the 
Kxianurei 



204 FARMER^s ASSISTANT. 

The seed is deposited about an inch deep, whilslf%e 
moisture is fresh in ihe earth, and covered by drawing a 
garden-rake along ihe rows. " , 

After =«this, the light roller is again passed along the 
ridiies, and ihe work is finished. 

When the plants arc about the size of a radish,, they are 
hoed with a turnip hoe, leaving the plants in the rows about 
t\Velve inches apart. It any of the seeds fail, and there 
happen not to l)e an even crqai^^ the roots, where they are 
too thick, are drawn out befoi^^he hoeiiSg takes place, and 
transplagted, to fill up the vacant plsices, and insure a full 
crop, Vkr,l|i^l\|^ always certain ; inasmuch as ninetv-nine 
pi Mits, GOT diR>ne hundred, thrive and do ^Vell. Ii^|(!ans- 
Iplantiu2:,^c2rt'e is necessary to prevent the point of tire rQOt 
from turning upwards. , ^ ■ • 

The Weeds, whilst the p|ants^ ^r^yoijjng, are kept hoed ; 
blit, after the head of the pfeht has on^e spread, no weed 
can live^tjij^erneath its shade,^and the expense of hoeing 
aheiward^is very trifling tndee'd. ■ ^ 

The -^kviiele ot the crop is^ taken up in' the month of No- 
vfember, in' dry vveathtiT*. The tops are cut off near the 
crown ot the plants, and the plants, when perfectly dry, are 
piled uplna shed, and covered with straw sufficiently thick 
to preserve them ti;<>m the frost. They kept last year till the 
latter end of MarsCb, and they would have kept much 
longer. '^ _ -, ^ 

l^he seed may be had of Cochran^ Seedsman, in Duke- 
street,. Grosvenor-square, dnd ot-Messrs. Gibbs ilf Co. Half- 
tiioon^'reet, Piccadilly. From three to four pound's of the 
peed will be sufficient for «n acre of groun'd, prepared and 
dibbled according to the^rpethod here stated. The W'^ce 
last year was seven shillings per pound; but it may p*bba» 
bly be less hereafter, as the Growers of the root, so long as 
that high price continues, will of course s^ye their owa 
feeed, and thereby lessen the demand from the Seedsman. 

THE METiiOB BEFORE DESCRIBED ELUCIDATED. 

Form of\hc Ridges before manuring. 



% 



a a 




'^''rhei tops of the ridges, about IVi'o incl\es broad, a a a a^ 
^tervals of twenty -four inches from one a to another. 

Bejjths about twelve inches from a to b. 

iurrows where the manure is deposited, b b h. 



FARMER'S ASStSTANT. 205 

Form of the Ridges after sJilitiTiff and rolling, 
A Ik A # A 




Tops, A A A A, nine inches broad, in the middle of which 

the seed is deposited/ A| ^ 

Situation of the mahure, B BTB B. 

i 

It will not be supposed, by any intelligent Farmer, that, 
where the quantity oi the innproved beetroo^^iv^n daily to 
a^'illock is stated, it is meant that it should 6e given witl^^u 
om dry food. It may, however, be necessary to'^say, that' 
the same dry food mi^st be given wiih the beet as is usually 
given with turnips, Mv. Heaton last yuar gave, oat-straw 
only, and the„ Bullocks did well upon that food^/and were 
sold to profit. No doubt they wovki have beeii reiijdy for 
the Butcher sooner, had good hay -been given to theii^: But 
this tact may be reUcd upon, that fresh Bullocks,' ^ed upon 
the beetroot and oat-straw, .will} in three months time, get 
fat enough. for the Butcher. 

It may also be necessary to observe, ^jiat not a word, here 
stated, is intended to apply to such lig|i»t turnip-sqils as will 
bear the tramplihg^ of Sh^ep, without injury to the land. 
Mr. Heaton has^none upon his farm; and I have not sttj|fi- 
cient knowledge of the nxanagemenj^ of turnip-land, of That 
d^Tiption, to say, whether, prudenc^ would warrant any 
trSI ol the beetroot, upon a lar^e scale,, on sucli soil, to be 
eat^n on the Ijind. 

Habere a field, selected for a crop of beet, hapjiens to be 
in a foul state, the seed had better be sown in a garden, 
and the whole field ptahted with the youngs beet, when of 
the size of a i;adish. This will give time for cleaning the 
ground, and filing it for a crop: for, although the beets are 
destroyei^ of weeds, it is not meant to recommend sowing 
them onioul groand, or in any way to encourage a slovenly 
system of^far:ming. 

AUhougli^ manure has been used in the cultivation of tbii 
root, it is not absolutely necessary; and, if not in a roten 
state, it do6s mischief.,^ Good crops have' been obtained at 
Be^fords, ivithout mah^rey and without injury to the suc- 
ceeding crops of cornS^Beet is fed frotn a depth considera- 
bly below the reach of the plough, as generally used; so 
that it does., not draw the surface-soil in which corfl is 
led. i - ; 

The method of cultivating the beetroot, here recom- 
TOended, is the same as that which is used in the cultivation 



206 FARMER'S ASSISTANt. 

of turnips, in Northumberland and other parts of the North, 
with this exoeption^ that the rows .there are twenty-seven 
inches apart. There liay be reas^s in the North for still 
preferin^that space ; but in Essex (he effect of it, in the 
cultivation of the beetroot, would be-, that, instead of forty- 
eight tons per acre, foriy three tons only would be obtained. 
Experience has "proved, that the roots do not get to a 
larger size in rows three feet apart, than they do in rows 
two feet apart. It may, thsi-efbre, fairly be presumed, 
that they would not be larger -in rows twenty-seven inches 
apart ; and, if not larger, the weight of the crop, per acre, 
must be less;, because the plants decrease in number as the 
rows increasepi space. 

The advantages that would arise from the cultivation ojf 
ese rodts, upon a small part of every strong land fairo 
throughout the kingdom, must be *'|)bvious. Calculations 
might be given that would astonish', arid almost exceed the 
belief of, nqost Readers. Such calculations, however, in 
general, ate but little attended to ; and it is thought better 
to oniit them ; hoping that enough has been said upon the 
subject to fix the attention of every Person interested in 
the cultivation 6i land. 

MANURES. A J^nowledge of the efficacy of different 
manures, to what^sbils they are most suitable, and the 
means of%iaking tiiie most oj each, is worthy of the parti- 
cular attention of the Farmer L^nds are seldom so rich, 
but it may be a matter of gain tp increase their fertility; 
and fe% tracts are so poor but, with proper tillage an<l ma- 
inuring, they may be made the residence of plenty '' 

Manures are composed of all those substances which, 
either directly or indirectly, supply plants with their requi- 
site food, by means of which they are etiabVed to expand 
and come to maturity. 

See Foon oi" Plants; 

In the first place, diff jrent earths will serve tb nq^'nure 
«ach other. Thus, clay is a fertilizer of a I'ght* sahdy soili 
and sand is equally a fertilizer of clay Where c^ay-lands 
are in, grass, the sand should be laid on as a top-dressing; 
but where they are ploughed, it should be well mixed with 
the soil, for the purpose of destroying its adhesion. Sand 
which has f)een washed down in rcnadsi and elsewhere is 
best. iWhei^e clay is applied to a sandy soil, it should be 
carted on in the Fall, and spread e*^fenly over the ground, 
that the frost may pulverize it before it is mixed with the 
soil in the Spring. 

The better these earths are mixed in the respective soils, 
the more sensible and immediate will be their effects ; but 
their principal excelence is^ that they are calculated perma- 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 207 

tiently to improve the soils $o which ihey are applied. StifS" 
loaljns are also in the same way assisted by sand, and sand 
again by these; bat reft|ier in so gr^t a degree as in thq^ 
former case. GencrlByi it may ^^ observed, tha^^all light 
dry soils are improved by toeing mixed with heavy earths, 
and vice versa ^ a 

Sand and fine gravel will greatly fertilise the soil of bog- 
meadows, and this earth again is a very good manure for 
all upland soils. It is peculiarly excelent tor Indian corn^ 
when applied to the hills, anS is very good for flax, hemp, 
and most other Summer-crops. Like gypsum, it is friendly 
to the growth of white-clover. When applied to upland 
grasses, it should be laid on as a top-^^essin0^ -livery kmd 
ojl black muo, from ponds and swamps, answefk a somewhat-^>^ 
similar purpose; though, if the mud be stiff and clayey, ml 
should only be applied to a light dry soil. 

Thesdifferent sortf*of marie found in bogswamps are als^ 
excelent manures for all upland soils. These earths are usu- 
ally found at the depth of from one to three feet from the 
surface, ^nd are either ot a white, <gray, or brownish feoloro 
The former is ihe most e^icaciou|, and the latter' the least 
so; their strength being in prdportion to the quantity of'car- 
bonate of lime rhey contain. It is best to mix these earths 
with the mass of black earth, or bogdirt, that forms the up- 
per stratum, in order to reduce th<ir strength; and, when 
thus mixed, a load pji even the weakest kind is jnore effica- 
cious than two of "<:ommon barn-dung. y 

Their operation as manjures is similar to that of the No- 
vascdtia gypsum^ hiving little pr no effli^ct when first-appli- 
edito wheat, and rye ; but, by its ^fterwa^ds covering the 
ground with a thick growth ot whiie-cl<|ver, it is then ren- 
de||^d fit for producing largely of these crops., The >same 
may be observed of the bogdirt. Like th^s, too, these 
inarles are peculiarly excejent for Indian corn, and all 
Summer-grain? and a less quxintiiy is sufficient. T^ey may 
be used as top- dressings, or otherwise. 

The upland marles are, good manures for sandy, gravelly, 
an^ other dry soils. They are al^o valuable in. proportion 
to the quantity of carbonate ot lime they contain. Mr. 
Foz^w^ me^^ions the tract of country. lying between' Holkam 
iand HougKten, in I^ngland, having been converted into 
good farming-lands, which formerly were so light and poor 
as.,^to be kept only fo|-^Sheep walks. This was effected by 
diging up the' marle,.|which was found tp lie at some depth 
underneath, and manuring the soil with it, at the rate of 
about one hundred loads to the acre. 

This kind'of marie is merely a clay, with sometinfies a 
mixture of fine sand ; having a greater or less proportion 
of carbonate of lime in it; and the more the t^eiter. It i& 



208 FARMER^s ASSISTANT. 

<)•■'• 
generally of 'a bluish color, and like other marie s is to be 
known by the effervescence i^ occasions when droped ijpto 
^^ vinegar, or other strcJl^ger acid. Mie greater the efferVes- 
' cence tHfe better the marie. |f 

i^ee ]fenry'% Chemistry, for the means of ascertaining 
how much calcareous,^arth any marie ccjntalns. 

Upland marie should be carted out in the Fall, and 
spread' as directed for^clay. The other kinds should be 
thrown up in a dry time in theFall, and may be carried out 
in the Winter, or other lime "^en the'ground is sufficiently 
firm for the purpose. ' , 

Ashes, as a manure, are found to be^ more efficacious in 
some parts X^he c(j|intry^lian in others; gene^Uy most so 
when appliecrlo lands near the ocean. ThP^Longisland 
Farmer c^n afford twelve cents a bushel for even leacl#& 
ashes; while, in Herkimer county, they are suffered to lie 
iimouched about the potasheries. '**' . -' ^ 

,,: Ashes generally answer the most valuable purpose when 
applied to Indian corn, particularly where the soil is not 
.suitable to this plant. 'Where the soil is wet, go^I, loamy, 
or clayey,- the plaints ar^e apt to get stunted by the cold 
rainir which usually lair after planting; and then the, ashes 
serve to supply- the naturardeficiencies 6f the soil, till it 
becomes fertilized by the Summer sun. But, where the 
soil is natural to the; growth of this plant, and there is no 
da%er of its being siunted at its cutset, perhaps it may be 
be|terio apply the -ashes later; so that t)ie plants tiiay de- 
rive the greatest assistance, from this manure, whiis' the 
ears are seiin^ and- foriioiing. ; ^, ^^, 

Ashes should generally be used for top-'dre^sings : l^jr 
salts lose nothing:i;by exposure to the air, "and soon find 
their way into the soil. ^ ^/^ ^ .f^; 

Soot is miich mop^ efficacious than ashes ; beside silts'/ 
it contains oil. The. soct of coal is esteetned equally us 
good as that of wood*. It is used for top-flK-ssing^'^ and re- 
quires about forty l?usluld for an acre. When applied to 
Winter-grain it s<hould be ^sown^^ in the Spring.;' ^,nd the 
same may be observed of ashes. Coalsoot pariiculai^y is 
very good for. meadow-Jands whicji have l^ecome sour and 
mossy. jThis manure can, .howe«er> only be li|'d in consi- 
derable quantities in large towns. ",r^ 

Ot salts, which serv^ as manures,' the principal are the 
common sea-salt,^ urine, stale of caiti^, seawater, saltpe^tre, 
and alkaline salts. To the latter, t|^ virtue of ashes, as a 
manure, is principally owing, So/ipsuds is in part valua- 
ble on account of its alkaline salts-; and perhaps ^he neu- 
tralized oil it contains^adds much .to its valuev It is usual 
to throw this manure ;a way ; bOt this is a needless waste. 
It may be taken in the wateringpot, and strewed over the 



,v^^ 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 20^ 

%. ■ , '^ ' ^, ■\^_^ 

garden, where it will be oP^great service as a manure, and 
in expeling insects.> .^ ' 

We sball presently i^y sOmethirlp^further of thisr and:, 
other manures affordeyi from the dwellinghouse. jS ^j* 

Saltpetre should, be dissolved in lye. of wood ashes^, in 
which seed'shouldlbe soaked, before Rowing or* planting. 

See ■ Sowing. ^^ ^ . ^ '% ' ' ' ' 

* Perhaps old .urine, or ^ven comnibn salt; would be found 
a valuable addition, in maldng a liquor for steeping ^§eed 
before sowing. |r ^ "'^.'' \ 

Seawater is said to contain saltpetre, sulphur, anfa oH, be- 
side common sAlt ; and is th^for|! preterable to the latter 
article for npnuring, when put impotMpbsts, qi^oftiierwJVfe. 

Mr. Deaf^ mdkts mention of anunared huts^bf potatoe 
which had two quarts of water applied to each, imm^diateJ 
after planting; and he says that the product of ^these was 
one-hajl more than %e same nunjb|^ot adjoining hills pi?o* 
duced. "Most probably, a quart t^each hill %a^ld havSj^* 
been better. ^v . ^ ■ - %' 

He mentions also a piece bf flax|^f which one sidfe was 
short and yellow; but, on its being^prinkled^wjth this wa- 
ter, it^ equaled the rest of the piece in about/jten days,^aud 
eventually was thj^ best. ^-\.'^ ' 

These two experiments were made on ^ff soils, but he 
says he found sandy grounds equally benefited by this 
manure. • v< 

' This water might be carried from the sea some di$fance 
on the land, to advafttage, in the following manner i *Tal^e 
a one-horse cart, and suspend a tiglft, box, rightly Shaped, 
un(|er the axletree; the box having a y^ilve in thfc under 
side; drive the cart into the water, ai^j^^^j^the valve opens, 
and lets that fluid into tlie box; and, when the. cart is driv- 
en out, the \alye^ closes^ahd holds the water. * 

When the cart is driirin out to the ground on which th% 
water is to be spread, this operation may be perfoMred in 
the manner, we shall next describe: A tube is to be provid- 
ed, say, twelve feet in length, with sniall holes bored Into 
it at the distance of six^ inches apart, and tUe ends of the 
tube closed; attach this to the under side of the box, cross- 
ways, at either end,- so^ a? to be out of the way ot the wheeh 
of the cart. - 

When you tome to where the vi^ater is to be sprp^ad, it is 
to. be let outiOf the box into' the tobe, by an aperture for 
tfiC^urposeV^nd as t^e cart moves along the wat^rCrun^? 
out of each of the small hpies in the tube, and thus spririi^' 
kles over a piece of ground oi "twelve feet wide, till the 
Whole is exhausted.; , - (r ' 

With the next load, begin where the wiater ceased ryliing* 
befoi*ei and thus continue ihe v/atered s^rip across 4he lieldii 



10 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 



Then talce another stnp of tweke feet wide, adjoining that 
already watfered, and,^us proceed v»i;]^g.tjg whole has been 
.-gone over.. '^' ' ^^ ,^ ' 4. 

In thi* way, one Man could carry o|it, say, forty cartloads 
a day, at the distance of half a mile, or halt that number, if 
a mile ; as but little ume need be spent, either in loading 
or unloading. Atjout *ten loads, of a l^ifared gallons each^ 
would probably b^ suffi^^-ient for an acre' at any one time. gt^ 

But this is not all that may be' done with seawatet: It 
may'^-be drove any distance int^-a coiT^itry, m aqueducts for * 
the purpose, with the aid of wind-machinery. Say, lor in- 
stance, that it can be dn^ye on ascending lands, to the 
heiglit of^n |y'i*^f^''fi^^%Si^^h one wheel and crank turned 
by the wind. ^^^hen^TaisCT that height, and eifptied into a- 
cistern for the purpose, it may, in the same way, be dro^e 
up to the height of another hundred feet, by another wheel 
imd crank ■^ttirned as before; and so o|i to any given height* 
required; So that th^ highest cultivable lands, ot those 
%ibsL remote from th^ sea, may,jn this way, and with the 
cart before described, bei maniiV'ed with seawater. 

The sprinkling of the water t)ver the land m^ be done 
at ar%mall ejjpense, as we have just shown. The principal 
e^cpense there^e js the aqueducts for carrying the water. 
These, if madie^of wood, would%irobabiy cost a thousand 
dollars Aa mile, iiji^cluding 'all other necessaiy apparatus. 
Ev;ery mile in Ifength would serve for two square miles of| 
larid^ The wood forming the aqueducts, being constantlyi^' 
saturalted with salt-water, would proWbly last a century. 
The expense, at this M{^i would fall short of ten cents per 
acre, by the year. , ^ 

In addition to x]^p use of the water fbr manure, a great 
saving could be made in the use of salt, for cattle, and in 
various other ways in which tMs itqi^id rhight be, in partj a 
substitute for that article. ^t' 

The method of driving water up an aqueduct is by a 
plunger, and two valves j one within the aqueduct to keep 
the water from returning, as the plunger is drawn back by 
the crank; the other ivithin the plunger; and, while this is 
receding, its valve opens to let in more water, and shuts 
again v^hile the plunger is advancing; arid at this time. the 
other valve opens to let the fresh supply of water pass 
through it. Thlis, the valves open and shut alternately, 
similar to thos^ in a common pump.;, 

>' Whether the advantages to be derived, from puting a 

*jp!an of tfjis kind into operation, w6tiiil warrant the exptinse, 

must depend on the result of ej^periments to be properly 

^ On some parts bf^oiJi? se^jcoast it would ber impracticable; 
particul^ly on most of that ti North-earoiinaj where the 



• KARMER's ASSlSTMJ'f.- 211 

wide and extcnsWe* bodies of;fresh w^ater forming the Albe- 
marle a^d Pamlico soujjds lie betwQ^n the sea and most of ^ 
the main land of that^ratl. ^ <» ^ ^-v 'v« 

But there is much of our coast,' and t^*e contiguous 
islands, which ofOTmany millions of acres to be benefited 
by this method o(^^nuring lands. 
-♦ The'siale ot^cattie is in part valuable, on account of its 
containing more o^ less^f common salt, and perhaps in 
**part from its tendency* lo pitdtiuce miasma, septon* or azote, 
some or all of which assist the growth of plants. Xhe older ' 
the sial^ the be(eier it is, as a manure. 

tJnder Soiling, one metho^^f s^ng itjs noentipbed, 
•and anothf^ili be spoken of blfore*^!^ close thfs a'rficle. 
|,Urine from the domicil is still more valuable, as possess^ /^ 

4*ng the properties of that of cattle, but in a higher "iJegree, 
md ^huuld«(always bg saved in the manner we sf»ail present-* 
\y no^mon. It has a powerful effd^, when sprinkled oyer 
■grass-grounds. ^ ^, 

Common salt is considereafrhorer^fficacious, when mixed 
in comp<^jts, than when ^|)plied in its crude state to the 
soil. jjiMr JiliioC makes nientioo of ftve bushels of this:; ma- 
nure oemg sowt),-^ its crude state, on an acre- of flax, and 
that it had # Sniprisingflfff«ict. We have -seen this crop 
very niuch assisted, with the appli^tion.of only two bushels 
|©f it tcTthe acre. #. .^^ . 

,^ An intelligent Farmer once obiser^ed to us, that during 
ourfRevolutionary War, w^^n this ajrtiole was so desft' that^ 
he could not afford \o give u to hjli-^cattje, his barn-dung 
seemed to be of but little service to his lands; but that he 
found the case muclr altered, when he c,^fd ^gain ^ft>ri to, 
deal out a sufficien(;y of. it to^is stock. M , ^^Sp^ " 

We will alsojhere ni^^ntit^ a s>mall pamphlet we^w. in 
Maryland, some' yearsj^^^ince, whicbvva§ mostly the certifi- 
^cates ot Planters of the interier of that State, des(^ribing 
the surprising effects produced on lands there, by sowing. a 
mixture of salt and fine mould upon them; particularly ^ 
when ajypiied to crops of wheat and flax. - ^ a 

These lands were such as had become much exhausted, 
by constarit^^,0rops of tobacco, and Indian corn; and on which 
few cattle Ikl^d ever been raised ; of course Uttle or no salt 
had ever Be'i^n given them, since they were cleared. 

'We mention these matters, as inducing our belief that 
soiiii^ of this ingrediei|t is highly essential to the proj^uct- 
iveness of soils ; and that, where they are long destitute of 
it, a little may have a powerful effect upon them, as a 
manure. \ \, ^^^ 

/ N(ir would we confine th^s observation to cominoa.: salt 
alone: W^ believe it may be applied to 9II the salts which 
operate as manures. If too much common salt be^ how- 

.: •« • 



'212 FARMER'^ ASSISXANT. 



X 



ever, given to lands at once, it wiU^pppXf ii^jurious, for a 
V^bile at least; and pe^iiaps the sa!:i|ie holds equally, true, in 
'regard tQ^the other salts. . -^^-^ 

We hav« se'fe'n a late newspaper publication, which very 
bighl)" recommended cpmmon salt, as a nianure for turnips. 
Mr. Dtctncs however, ^ays he once made trials of it upon 
this crop, upon onions, and on carrots; and that the latter 
crop only' was benefited by the ap^^lication. 

Perhaps he either applied too mifch'to the two former ^ 
"crops, or the soil might not have required any addition of 
this ingredient? as we have seen a little>6f it u^d v^ry 
successfully, ^s a mimii re fo^' onions. »* 

WlTelhcr cStnnnon^ult^^ay be,,i)rofitably s^^ied, as a ' 
xj, itianure, must depend on its price, its effects on the growth 
of iliffePeni plants, and in different soils, and situations ; as ^ 
it is iiup'posed not to be so powerful in^.its effect on lands'^* 
near the ocean, nor, ^Irhaps, on sonie soils, as fPis^on 
■others. "■ , _,_^ 

; B'U little attention has^^^ beerP=|iitiid, in this Country, to the 
opera'iion of time, as a manure; though, in some tnstances, 
, We have heard of its beii^g very ^ccessfully applied. | 

Under Earths^ something has been said in regard to 
Imii , is a primitive earth, and asking on0 of those which 
i-,ie tssentially necessary, as a component part, in fojipming a 
durably ifertile soil', ' r 

LiiTje is of singular use, in destroying the adhesive qual- >. 
!iy of ktiff clitys; and it is on-Soils of this description^^ind 
1)11 cold loams, that it I^b been considered, in Greatbritain, 
as ixiost efficacious. On such soils, the British Farmers 
•fsnally apply aboj^lt two hundred and forty bushels to the 
?? lie, \yhich is cdftsidered ajull jnanu^rjiig; the effects of 
which ave usually manifest foTi^igfi, ten,? arid twelve of the 
imcceeding crops. , ^^ '''^ ./^; t 

.'^If i^e be applied to the lighter aiid drier lands of that< 
. '^Gbuntry, not niuch more than half of that allowance is 
given at once. ; 

An opinion was held by Mi% Zzv/^*?on, that lime is 
miost suitable to lands in a cool moist climate, such as that 
of Greatbritain ; and Mr. Brownel considers it a^.an impro- 
per manure for lands containing much vegetable earth; but 
perhaps experience may show, that both of these opinions 
are in a great measure erroneous. 'i*. - 

Lime will reduce peat and turf to a mpre Vegetable 
earth; but vve believe it never proceeds so far in the work 
of deconiposition, as to destroy vegetable matter, or lessen 
its^quaniJiy where it abounds. 
i It woAild be desirable i^atia^curate 'trials of lime were 

made, in order to ascertain its value in our soils, and 
whether it should be held in as high estimation here, as 

■#■ • 



♦ FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 213 

«ft ' %■; r,, «^ 

in Greatbrhain, where its use, as a manure, is very ex- 
tensive. ... ^H 

We wiii here give tl^e inferences oLan experienced prac 
tical Farmer of thaL Co^itry, fronri various trials ©f lime on 
clays, on loams, JBi ow sandy loams on a close retentive 

bottom^ ♦ ^|l 

1. That lime operates equally well, whether applied 
when fresl\ slaked, ^or when it has been some time slaked, 
^provided the condition of the ground be such as to render 
a calcareous application beneficial. ^ 

a. T|^at it i^ not material, wh^her lime be used on 
grs^-land, or on Summer-fallov|,| bu| may be applied as 
may be nac^ convenie^ especially 611 new clean grass- 
land. On land which has long "lain in grass, it is thought 
best to take one crop after breaking it up; an4|th^n'to 
Summer-fatiow, and apply the lime. "^ ^'^ 

3. ftat to lime moorish. soil> is hazardous, uhless dun|p 
be likewise bestowed ; and, to repeat the applicati(on, espe- 
cially where such soils havd^bn^eh severely croped^ is s^lmost 
certain loss ; and that a cpjnpost of lime and rich elhh is, 
in su<^ case, the only propter substitute. / , 

4. That strong loams .and clays require a full dose, to 
bring them ifi't^ action, ailr such soils are capable of absorb- 
ing a great quantity of calcareous matter ; and that lighter 
soils require less lime, to stimulate tHtem ; and may be in- 
jured by a quantity ^jhat would prove but moderately bcne- 
fici^ to those of a heavy nature. 

5? That upon fresh land, or th^t which is in a proper 
state for an addition of calcareous earth, lime is much supe- 
rior to dung, as its effects continue for a-longer time, whilp 
the crops thus grown are of a superior 'feitjd, and are'Sess 
liable to be injured by drought, or by Excess of moisture; 
and that the stiff soils particularly arg so much easier work- 
;ied, when welUimed, that this circumstance alone is-^most 
a sufficient induc0ment to apply lime to such grounds, if it 
possessed no fertilizing properties. 

Finally, that though strong soils require to b0^tini^a^d 
with a good dose of lime, while those of a light texture 
require bu|i]ittle more than half the allowanc^e of the fonn* 
er, especially where they are' fresh, or have not been belore 
limed ; still judgment is requisite in the application : But 
that it is generally safer to exceed the proper quantity, than 
to be below it; for thBt, in this latter case, the manure may 
prove almost wholly useless; while it rarely happens that 
the ground is injured by .ah excess of lime, especially if 
more- or less dung be soon after administered. ; ' 

A circupstahce' calculated to strt^ngtheh the belief; that 
lime will answer well as a manure^ iirt'^almost every^part of 
this Country, is, that the Romans used it^ as a manure in 



214 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. • 

Italy, when they conquered Britain; snd/iare supposed to 
have first introduced" it in that I&iand;;$or, although the 
Summers of the latter Country 'li;|; niuch moister and 
cooler than otirs; still those of the former arc nearly as 
warm, and perhaps full as dry, as the a#rage of Summer- 
weather here. ,^/^ " t 

And if lime enables crops the better to withstand 
droughts, which are often more severe li^ere than in Britain, ^ 
this would seem to be an additional reason for its use, as a "^ 
manure, in this Country. 

Lime is also'of singjftlar use in producinfg a hig\ degree 
of fermentation, in all soUs which require it; and this is 
essential to their JifeduOTiveness,^ in every gp^ntry and * 
climate. 

The British Writer to whom we have just refered says,.^ 
however, that experience has shown thai iime wUl not re- 
store land^s; which have bqeh completely worn out 5y con- 
stant crops of grain. He theretore supposes lime to be 
merely calculated to bring certain principles into action, 
which were previously, possessed by the soil, and which are 
probably lost when thus exhausted by severe cropmg.^ But 
again he says, that all lands are benefited by iime, ' which 
can be refreshed by grass, or enriehed by dun^,' 

We liaye thus far given the Reader the substance pf what 
we find in the latest' and ^est British Publications on lime, 
as a manure : But, from information ^ derive from Dr. 
Mease, of Philadelphia, we are enabled more partici^rJy 
to state the quantity prefer for an acre in this Country ; and 
also that which has been found most efficacious, as a ma- 
nure, in Pennsylvania. ' 

We have met^tioned two hundre^ and forty bushels to the 
acre, as being the allowance for clay-soils in Greatbritain ; 
but we are induced to believe that where so much is appli- 
ed, in that Country, it must be of lime made from chalky > 
which is much weaker than ihat made of litpestone. 

Forty bushels tp the acre is about the usual allowance of 
lime of this latter description on the lands of Pennsylvania, 
wliicS are commonly a loam mixed with more or less of 
either sand or gravel. It is also found that ihe^sinds which 
have there been previously limed, are more' powerfully 
stimulated by the application ot gypsum, than those to 
which lime has not been recently applied. ;*^ ,^, 

Under Earths, we have mentioned that, in GreatbTitain, 
lime which has the most magriesia in it is accounted the 
least valuable; but, in Pennsylvania, it is found the most 
efficacious. 

The quality possessed by lime, of producing a great de- 
gree of lermentation,#enders it 6f singular use in making /y 
composts. These are iVequently mads, in Greaibritainj 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 215 

from mere collections of alluvial or other rich earths, 
wherever they cap be had» and mixing them with lime 
sufficient to prodiice thtfLrequisire degree of fermentation, 
which is to be effect^d%y' frequently stiring up the mass 
with the plough, or the shovel; and in this state is carted 
out, and mixed imrirediately with the soil. 

Composts are afib^made in some parts of that Country, 
in which peat commonly forms about three-fourths of the 
mass; the remainder being fresh barn dung, together with 
some lime to be laid on ihe top, to assist in the decomposi- 
tion of the pear, as the mass becomes, properly heated. 

The peat and the dung are first t^^ laid down in layers, 
in pljaporiion to their respective quan^ties, until the heap is 
made about|^r feet high. Sticks are "to be run down into 
the heap, in different parts of it, to ascertain the degree of 
heat the mass has acquired; and whenever it approJiches to 
blood-heat, it must be either watered, or turned over, as 
there i^anger of the whole beii>g consumed, particularly 
in warm weather, if the mass become too'^ warm. 

After the heat subsides, i^ich it does in time a/ccording. 
to the state of the atmosphere, and ^he degree of perfection 
in proportioning the materials of the heap, it is to lie uatil 
about Ihree weeks before it is to be applied to the soilj 
when it is to bej turned topside down, outside in, and a 
second heat comes on, which nuist be carefully attended to, 
as before ; and, when this subsides, the'inass is to be ap- 
plied to the soil. , 

T||kmass of manure thus made is found to be as good, 
as tne same weight of roten barn-dmig Care and experi- 
ence seem, however, necessary in making this manure to 
periFection. In Summer, it may be mad^, in eight or ten 
weeks: In cooler weather, a lopgier time ft necessary. > '^* 

Where the peat is taken M)m beneath the surface, it 
should be thrown up some f^ime before, for the purpose of 
drying, and being lighter in transportation. The compost, 
while making:, should be kept as light as possible. 

See Earths, in regard to the description of peat. 

That which abounds on the stirface of soine swamps, and 
uplands, is readily decomposed by the application of lime, 
and mixing k with this earth. ' 

We will rp^ition another kind of compost, in" which lime 
is an ingredie\it, as recommended by the Society of Improv- 
ers in Scotland, for malting use of the ridges along-side i 
of f(^ces, in fields which have been ^ong ploujghed. 

First plough the ridge deep with a qleavingTturrow; then 
cart on a liiyer of stiff cldy, then a layer of barn-dung, then 
another of day, and on ihct whole a layer of lime, and covel! 
the mass oVer with ploughed 'earth from each side, and l^t 



216 farmer's assistant. 

it lie a while ; then enter it with a deep cleaving furrow, 
and in this way plough it to the bottom^ then go over it 
again with gathering furrows, un^l the whole is thrown up 
into a high ridge, and in this siMation let it again lie to 
ferment. '■ ^ .' ^' 

Repeat the process of cleaving down, and ridging up, at 
proper intervals, till the whole mass is^^mill fermented; and 
then' cart it out, and mix it with the soil, at the rate of 
about thirty-five loads to the acre. 

The component parts of manure made in this way, or 
something similar, stold be adapted to the soil intended 
to be manured. '$^ ■ . ^ 

Mr. Youn^, of Delaware, greatly irnproved ivornout'^lay- 
lands, by composts, in which lime was a pri^pal ingredi- 
ent ; and, while the land thus became redeemed from abso- 
lute sterility, the soil at the same time became darker in 
color, and lost that stubborn adhesiveness, so troublesome^ 
J&i, clay-soils. '•'4, . ■. f 

Mr. Jshfordy cff Penney lYanji.9, put twS hundred bushels 
Of linie on nine acres ; planted'the ground with Indian corn; 
left one acre unlimed; crop of corn. great, where the lime 
Mras applied. Next year, Summer-fallowed, and had good 
"Wheat and rye, where the land was limed. Sowed herds* 
grass atid clover, and applied gypsum to. the whole; had a 
good QTop of grass, ^here the land was manured with lime; 
but poor, where it was not. 

*This was probably land sornewhat stiff, and considerably 
exhausted. It wbuld seem that stiff lands are coiAonly 
very considerably as|^ted. by gypsum, after havingbeen 
manured with lime. 

Mr. Ashford aays he ploughs Ms land for Indian corn in 
^ tl*id^Fall, lays on 'his liiiae in the Spring, and is never trou- 
bled with either worms or w^ds.!" He brings home all his 
ccornsialks in the Fall, lays them dpwn, firmly trodep, with 
altern^kte layers of. lime; and next Spring he finds the mass 
roted and fit for use. 

If he were to add some barn-dung, and, some earths, 
suitable to the soil to be manured, he would find his heap 
of compost much improved in quantity, and perhaps in 
quality.' .- 

Peachtrees, when .planted in grass-grounds, where they 

naturaUy grow but indifferently, are much assisted by strew- 

"^ ing some' lirne round the roots. This probably assists in re- 

peling insects, ^s well as in. serving as a manure, for the 

trees. 

See Orchard, where Mr. Coxe assisted the. growth of 
his young ap^letrees, -by a compost in which lime was an 
ingredient. " sj^^^^^. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 217 

Pigeons* dungp, \vhich Ys chiefly calcareous rrtatter, is 
lound very efficacious, wtien powdered^ and a slight quantity 
applied to lands; while, at; the same time, too much will 
prove hurtful at fi^jst. The dung of other fowls is very 
similar, though son^e more and some less' efficacious. 

S^e Poultry, where this kind of manure is to be made 
in the greatest quantities. 

We roust also notice human ordure, which is capable of 
being convented into ^''^ery powerful manure, after being 
mixed with suitable earths, and having a due length of time 
to prepare it in a contpost of suitable earths, &c. It re- 
quires two years to bring it to perfection. 

Barilla is highly valuable, as a manure. Old woolen rags 
are also very good. A piece, of the size of a Man's hand, 
will serve to manure a hill of potatoes, when properly bu- 
ried in iMe soil beneath t^e growing plants. 

We will now spea^ of another calcareous earth which, in 
this Country, is commonly': entitled to the highest con- 
sideration, as. a cheiip and valuable manure, and this is 
gx/fisum. ' ■^' \ 

' One hundred parts of gypsum (says Mr. CAo/^/a/) con- 
tain thirty of sulphuric acid, thirty- two of pure earth,, and 
thirty eight of water.* < If ft be kept in a fire of considera- 
ble intejasity, in contact with powder of charcoal, tlie acid 
is decomposed, and t^e residue is lime.* ' « 

* Qypstim is found in the earth in four different states : 
1, irMie pulverulent and fris(ble form, which constitutes 
gypseous earth, fossil flour,'8ic7; 2, iVi solid masses, which 
constitute plaister-stone ; 3, in ^t^laciitesj and, 4^ in deter- 
minate chrystals of different forms.* 

' The color of gypsum (he jadds) is subject to a greit 
number of varieties, which are the signs of various quali- 
ties, reld^ive to its uses; The white is the most beautiful; 
but sometimes it is gray, and in this case it is less esteem- 
ed, and less valuable. The several states of the oxyde of 
iron, with which it abounds, in greater or less quantities, 
constitute its rosdcolored, red, and black varieties.* 

For almost^ all soils, except clays and wet loams, this is 
the cheapesS^nianure that can be applied ; and its use in 
this Country 'Serves greatly to,, equalize"'tfve value of lands, 
by rendering those which are naturally poor a;lmost as p|o- ^ 
ductive as the rich. ^> ' ■ 

This gypsum that abounds in -the interior of tlie State of 
Nevjryork is much superior to that of Novascotla ; not only 
as (b its being a greater stimuUiit to the growth of plant^ 
but in Regard to its being more general in its bperatio® 
better calculated to assist the grow tl\ of all plant?, ^ all 
s^ils and situations. s' — 

^ 28 



218 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

It has been successfully appUed to old meadow-Uhd ot 
timothy-grass; to growing cvop.s of wheat; and on lands 
near the ocean; in all ot which cases the Novascotia gyp- 
sum is usually applied with little or no effect. 

In another instance, however, we have: seen it inoperative 
on timothy- grass, on a dry loam; while it had its usual ef- 
fect on the clover growing on the same soil. Its effects 
are not always the same j but most certain when applied to 
clover, by greatly increasing that crop, and by puting the 
land in good condign, for almost any Qther, when the 
elover-sward is turn^oi'tinder. ( .., 

As gypsuqi, when sown qn suitable grounds^ always^pro- 
duces a spontaneous growth of white-clover; and as this 
growth is an intallible indication of the soil being thus ren- 
dered in good condition for a crop of wheat, or rye ; ,where^ 
therefore, either of these crops is'to bj^ raised oa fallow- 
groundSj the better v/ay: is X6 sow the gypsum early in the 
Spring, ^nd, as soon as the .growth of this clover is produc- 
ed, break up the soil, and prepare it for the crop, by further 
ploughings in due season; and in this way the product will 
leommonly be double what might be expected on the same 
ground, without ih^ application of this ^njaaure. 

Thus, suppose that the ground be a dr]^loam, or gravelly 
loam, so' exhausted, that ten bushels to the acre, ot wheat, 
could only be obtained by the common culture j let two 
bushels^ of gypsum to the acre be applied, early j| the 
Spring, and by the middle of |iii)e, or sooner in niore'"l^uth- 
crly climatesj the ground will be covered with a sward of 
white-clover; ari4 then, wit^ liie same cultu^re, twenty bush- 
els to the acre m^ be expecttd, and the ground will be m 
much better condition for another' crop. 

The same difference -may be expected, where a crop of 
I'ye is to be raised, on ground suitable to its growth. 

The most powerful opt ration qf this ii>anure, in propor- 
tion to thf! quantity used, is in applying it to dry the seeds, 
after being sya»^ed in some fertilizing liquor, such as a mix- 
ture^lof old urine, lye bj wood-ashesy.or strong soapsudjj, 
Ivith^ solution, of saltpQtre, an^ /sown or planted immedi* 
Sttely." ' ''/ ^\ ,,,, *-;.y^':" : -,; \:,/ 

The effe'ct,s of such' treatpient on seeds of Indian corn, 
^r buckwheat, peas, oats, bai;ley, and perhaps flax, will proba- 
bly be found the greatest; but, if the gypsum of, the State 
of Newyork be used, perhaps its effects may be^fotmd.more 
generoliy. useful. ■■■,.,. ■ /- ^ , ^ fl^.' . ^ 

,^, When potatoes are cut for planting^ it is of singular use 
ni the growth of the crop to sprinkle on gypsumj, before the 
cut parts have dried;.; and also to apply sortie' to ,the hillS; 
before the seed is covereclj about a table spoonful to each. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 2 19 

Indian corn is ^Iso greatlyjbentfited by a similar applica- 
tion to the hills.. Let the gypsum be scattered a little in 
both cases. ' '^ ' ., ,^ 

'its eflFectS on pumpkins, squashes, and other plants of 
that son, is said to be gr^t; also, on cabbages, and proba- 
bly on turnips of different kinds, as they are all different 
sorts of Srassica. Most pi'obably, all plants will be more or 
less assisted, in their growth, by a proper application of 
gypsum. I« 

Ev«ry Farmer and Planter ought to keep a constant sup- 
plyj,of this excelept manure, if it can be obtained at any 
reasonable price, ancJ liis lands be -hnbre or less naturally 
sterile, or exhausted, and suitable for its application. He 
will find thatj with proper management, every bushel he 
applies to his lands will yield him double, and from thai 
even tOi ten-fold, its value, according to his soil, the price 
gypaunik costs hitn, and the uses to which he applies it. 

its ap'plication, together with the cultivation of red-clover^ 
and other suitable' grasses, to almost all the dry-lands of the 
Atlantic States, (ying soi^lh bf Pennsylvania, is a desidera- 
tum of the utmost jmportatice to the Planters of that natu- 
rally fine tract of country ; a country not generally of a very 
strong durable soil; that has suffered much from the most 
exhausting crogs/ and the worst of husbandry; but is, 
nevertheless, susceptible of being made second to none in 
the United States, By a proper system of culture, With the 
aid of gypsum, and other suitable manures, and grasses. , 

G^#erally speaking, little else but these are wantlns: to 
raise the value of the plantations of that; country to, five^ 
and, in some instances, to ten, times the ambunt of the 
prices they at present command. ! 

Col. Taylor^ of Virginia, frpiii various trials of gypsvfm, 
draws the following conclusioris^i That this manure should 
be mixed with the earth, by harrowing of ploughing ; that 
drought may defeat its operation on Indian corn, it the ma- 
nure be not thus worked into the soil; an|i' that its effects 
on this crop are as great in this way, as wh«n applied to 
the hills ; that it increases the fertilizing effetts of coarss 
barn-dung; that gypsuiti may greatly increase a crop of 
red-clover, when sown even as late as May; that even a 
half-bushel of this manure, to an acre, may ofte^ be found 
as efficient as a much larger quantity; that ah excess of 
moisture, or of drought, commonly ^destroys its operation ; 
that the state of the ground, or of the atmosphere, whether 
w6t, or dry, at the time of sowing this manyre, is not es- 
sential ; but that the state of e^ich, afterwards, is of particu- 
lar consequence ; that its effects are more likely to be de- 
feated when, sown on the grotmd,' than;, when worked into 
it; that sowing it broadcast on India4 '.cot-n, after;u is up;, 



220 FARMER^s ASSISTANT. 

irtay improve the crop twenty-five per cent ; that, sown ift 
June, it niay improve English grass ; that sown in Augustj^ 
and worked in, it may improve the ground; and that, sown 
in November, it will most probably neither assist the crop^ 
nor the land. ''■ 

This, it must be remembered, is the Novascotla gyp- 
sum. 

Mr. Peters says the foregoing very nearly agrees with 
his experieoce. He says he has alw£^ys derived very bene- 
ficial effects, in raising every kind of grain, from first wet- 
ing his seed, and the^ rolling or drying it in' gypsum, be- 
fore sowing; but th^fe^|ie never experienced any benefit, by 
sowing this manure on any kind df grain, usually sown in 
.|be broadcast, except buqkwheat. / 
^ Hq had probably never trie4 it on peas, and dther legu- 
minous crops. / 

He found it excelent for tobacco: ^He says it will not 
operate on ,^n exhausted soil, that has biecome destitute of 
Vegetable of putrescent animal matter; but that when either 
of these, or lime, is applied to such soilf then the gypsum, 
even if it has been lying in the soil, without effect, will 
have its usual operation. At the same time, he says that 
lands newly cleared, which have commonly much animal 
and vegetable matter in them, are not. assisted ^Y this 
manure. 

He also considers it as efficient as lime, for the purpose 
of fcxpeling insects from the soil. ,t. 

Acids applied to gypsum produce an effervescent^ and 
this is, therefore, one method of distinguishing this manure 
from other kinds of limestone. Another is, to reduce the 
mass, supposed to be gypsum, to powder; then put it in a 
vessel over the fire; and if^it be gypsum an ebullition will 
lake place, when the mass bificomes sufficiently heated. 

We have been informed, that gypsum has a most pow- 
erful effect, when applied as a manure to strawberry-plants, 
by greatly increasing the size and quantity of the fruit. 
We believe that all leguminous plants, and all those which 
grow above ground, in the shape of vines, derive much 
benefit from this manure. 

Mr. Livingston says, that in traveling through Flanders 
he found that pyrites were used as a manure, particularly 
lor grass-lands, at the rate of about six bushels to the acre. 
The seed grain is also covered with it, as it is with gypsum 
in this Country. The stone is sufficiently impregnated with 
sulphur to burn^ when dry, and this is the method there 
used to reduce it to powder. For this purpose, it is laidJn 
heaps, and when it has become red with burning, the fire is 
extinguished; for-if it burn longer it becomes black, and 
then the quality Is li^t so good. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 221 

After the burning, it is e^ily reduced to powder j and as 
a proof of its great valu©) as a manure, he observes it is 
carried forty and fifty miles into the., country, on the backs 
of Asses. , >- 

Mr. Livingston is of Opinion that the sulphuric acid in 
this, as well as in gypsum, is the fertilizing principle; that 
in this slow combustion this acid is absorbed in the burnt 
earth,' while the inflammable matter is dissipated; and t>at 
the union of the alkali and the acid forms a salt not unlike, 
in its chemical relation, to gypsum, or perh sips one that is 
^ore soluble, more impregnated ^ith the acid. . 
•* Refering alsoto a circurnstance-^fiiientioned by Dutiamel, 
"Where this acid being scattered dver weeds, wi^h the view 
of destroying them, only made them grow with additional 
vigor, he observes, tljat probably if it were diluted, and 
applied to the soil, or mixed with woodashes, and applied 
in that way, it might answer the purpose of gypsum. And 
in order to find an acid that would be cheaper and better, 
as being already <:omposed^9,f a constituent parrof vegeta- 
bles, he observes that the pyro-ligneous acid may be obtain- 
ed, at a trifling expense, %y converting vvoodinto charcoal, 
and condensing thfe vapor ; as the charcoal would of itself 
repay the expense of the operation, particularly where wood 
is cheap. ''^ 

Mr. Livingston further observes, that he has seetf py^i^ttes 
on his own estate; and, advises that experiments be made 
of this earth. It is to be laid in beds about four feet thick, 
an|^ while burning shpuld be stired with a rake. When 
cooled, pound it fine arid sift.it. If thie earth should prove 
too inflammable, he advises to give it a mixture ot lime, 
ivhich, by the process of burning, wQuld, be converted into 
gypsym; or wood-ashes vyfould be found useful. If the 
pyrites be in lumps, it musj be reduced to a coarse gravel, 
before burning. '■' Xi 

A due attention to the recom;mendation of Mr. Living- 
ston on this subject might be productive' of very beneficial 
results, as no doubt many parts of the interior of this Coun- 
try may be found, abounding in pyrites which are destitute 
of gypsum. 

Mr. Chafimanyoi Pennsyjvania, tried sulphufet of,barytes, 
calcined, as a manure, and found that it even exceeded 
gypsum in its effects, not only on dry gravelly lands, but 
also on clays. It drove insects from liis garden. He con- 
siders it the most powerful manure ever yet discovered, 
pare must be taken, however, not to strew it on ,^he grow- 
ing plants, lest it kill them. 

^ In preparing some, for the purpose of ihaking an experii^ 

^IKvent) he took twentj-four pounds of this earth, mixed it 

With th*ee pounds of powdered charcoal, and put the whole 



22^ FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

into an earthen jar, with a light cover thereon, and burned 
it in a Peter's kiln. 

Sulphur is also found to be nearly as efficacious, as a ma- 
nure, as it is W expelihg insects. 

Pulverized stonecoal, says Mv. Muhlenberg^ is a good 
manure for most soils. Four hundred pounds are suflicient 
for an acre. Pulverized charcoal is also good; and the 
same may be said of pulverized slate, limestone, and shells 
of shellfish. The latter are also good to be ploughed in 
whole, in a dry soil, for, the purpose of increasing its 
rtioisture. » 

Burnt-clay, good for pold stiff soils. 

5ee BURNT-CLAYj^nd BURNBAKING. 

Every paf-tof animal substances may be converted into 
good manure. The flesh, in decoiti posing, discloses abun- 
dance of azote and miasma; and some of the constituent 
parts of blood are alkaline and sea- salts, oil, air, lyaiter, &c. 
atl of which are essentially the food of piants. The bones, 
when powdered, are good as a top-dressing; and even the 
shavings of the horrjs, and of the hide when curried, are 
good in composts, or when buried in light soils. The flesh 
shouM be spread over the ground, and ploughed in imme^ 
diately. The blood is best used in composts. 

Of vegetable manures, those which are either ploughed 
down for green-dressings, or are otherwise buried in the 
earth while green, are much more efficacious than when 
dried, especially if long exposed to the weather. 

"•'iSee Green-dressing, j^ 

Such may, however, be useful when brought into OTw- 
yards, and there mixed with the dung of the cattle, by 
which means they absorb much of the stale and juices of 
the excrements, which woiild otherwise be lost. For thi^ 
purpose, almost every kind of plant, whether green oi* dry, 
is more or less useful. 

Of the contents of the barn-yard, Horse-dung is t|ie 
worst, and Sheep-dung is much the best, as a manure. If 
the former be suffered to lie long in a heap, it will be 
spoiled by its own heat, which is to be known by its white 
mouldy appearance, and therefore should be applied to the 
soil as soon as possible.* It is most suitable for c61d, wet^ 
and stiff soils'; dnd the same may be observed of Sheep- 
dung, thougll'this wirl! greatly assist any soil. Cow-dung is 
best for light df dry soils. 

Every kind of barn-dung is much injured by being suf- 
fered to lie exposed to the rains; and therefore should be 
kept as much under cover as possible. It should be carted 
put in the Spring, and immediately buried in the soil for a 
crop of Indian corn or potatoes, in order that the seeds of 
weeds whicii it contains inay be destroyed by the hoings 



FARMER^s ASSISTANT. 223 

and subsequent ploughings; Or if any part of the dung be 
retained in the barn-yard, for making coniposts, it should 
be that which is under cbycr; and if this be tlie Horse- 
dung, let it be immediately nnixed with some cooling earths 
which are fit ingredients for composts. 

These may be made of every ingredient that can be 
gathered together, that is calculated to manure the soil for 
which it is intended. Clay, sand, mud, lime, peat, &c. may 
therefore be parts.' To these may be added the scrapings 
of the back yard, turfs on which cattle have long dunged, 
oM rubbish of buildings, earth that tias been long covered, 
banks of rich earth that have been thrdwn up by the plough 
agains fences, and generally all rich earths which carr be 
spared. On the heaps of composts should be thrown &\l 
the soapsuds, dishwater, meaibrine, urine, water that has 
run from dung, and generally all the filth that is collected 
in and about the house and barn. ; , = ^ • 

Composts shoiild be frequently stired up from thie bot- 
tom, in order that a due degree of fermentation may event- 
ually pervade the whole mass ^ and wher| in this state of 
fe^rtn en ration they should be darted out; spread evenly on 
ground well prepared, ploughed in lightly, and well mixed 
by the harrowings which cover the seed that is at the same 
time to be sown. , 

A heap of compost of this kind may be made toi advati- 
tage^ear the dwelHnghouse, for the purpose of recetying' 
froriPit the additions that may be afforded ^there. Or it may 
be made adjoining the Hogpen, to receive all its contents | 
for Hog-dung is an excelent manure for all dry soils. Such 
a s'.ock would be found of signal use, ^s a manure for the 
turnip-crop. 4, 

See Turnips. ' : ^i^ 

These heaps of compost will be the better to be slightly 
covered, so as to admit no more rains than will serve to 
keep thent in a' proper degree of moisture. ,Jf properly 
prepared, they will be found much superior to equal quan- 
tities ol raw barn-dung; and, if proper pains be taken, very 
censiderable quantities ot them may be made every year* 

An excelent method of making a large quantity of ma- 
nure, with little trouble, is as follows:^ in the ;5pring, en- 
close a piece of ground, say, ten rods/long an4 tv^o wide; 
have thfe two end fences so that they can b^ speedily remov- 
*ed at pleasure to plough the ground more easily. After 
ploughing It with a cleft furrow, turn the Milch-cows and 
young cattle upon it every night. After they have saturated 
the surface, plough it with a gathering furrow ; and so on 
aUernaticly, at intervals, until the groiind is completely sa- 
turated with their stale and dung. Then cart it off, and 
apply it as before directed lor composts. 



254 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

By .first carting earth and rubbish into the barn-yard, the 
same proces^pt making manure may be carried on there ; 
but this requires an adtlitional' carting, which greatly en- 
hances the expense. It is usually better to make these 
yards in suitable places, and drive the cattle into them, after 
the Cows are milked. They may be made in the fiefd in- 
tended to be manured. Sheep, however, should never be 
shut up in this manner, as it will be found more hurtful to 
them, than the advantage gained by their manure is worth. 
Perhaps the same may be observed of Horses. 

Let a slight shed be made in a Sheep-pasture, and under 
this cart a layer of sand or ather earth : The Sheep will 
resort to this for shade if it be the only one in the field. 
As they saturate the earth thus carted in, bring in more 
and spread it over the other; as this becomes also saturated, 
let more be brought in, until the mass is raised so high as 
to render it pecessary to cart it off' to manure the soil, tis 
before directed^ The same process may be carried on in 
the Sheep-pen, during Winter, to nearly' equal advantage. 
The earth becomes in ihis way so fully saturated with the 
urine and excrements, thait it becomes very g(^od manure. 
The stale and manure of Horses and Qlher cattle might in 
part be saved, during the warm Summer-days, in the man- 
ner above directed for Sheep. 

The Reader will find the most effectual and complete 
method of making the most of the manure, which is usualjy 
lost in Summer, under Soiling of Cattle. t 

Mr. Peters sayS that barn dung should not be completely 
roted, before using ; but that it should be so far advanced 
in putrefaction, as to destroy the vegetative power of the 
seeds of weeds it contains ; that it should be applied to the 
soil while it is still in a. state of fermentation, and during 
the latter part bf the process of rating. 

There seems to be some diversity of opinion, on this 
point. Some say dung should be perfectly roted, before it 
is used; while others contend for burying it in the soil, be- 
fore roiing. 

We believe that any given quantity of fresh barn-dung 
may, in most cases, be rendered more productive by being 
first roted to a certain degree; and that it will go still far- 
ther, when ;^operly mixed in a compost : But, as additional 
expense must, in either of these cases, be incured, this 
should be duly estimated, and regulated according to cir- 
cumstances. > 

For instance, if labor is high, the price and the produce 
of lands low, and the lands already in a high state of fertil- 
ity; there may be a, loss incured in expending too much 
labor in making the most of the contents of the barn- 
yard. 



M 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 225 

But, if the case be reversed, by the land being deficient 
in affording the greatest products, the prices of, these, and 
of the land, sufficiently hi^, and Ihe wages of Laborers 
moderate 5 there a proportionately increased expenditure, 
in manuring 'the land, will be found essentially requisite, 
for obtaining the greatest clear profits. «^ 

A sound discretion is indeed essential, in determining 
how much may be expended, to ac^vantage, in manuring 
lands J but, generally speaking, much is lost in falling short 
of that point where, by the aid of plentiful manuring, the 
greatest profits are to be expected. ^Z* 

See further, Stercorary, lor the means of making the 
most of barn dung ^ 

^This manure, in 4ts crude state particularly, should 
always be buried to a good depth in the soil ; and in this 
state should remain there till it Ifas sufficiently roted ; for 
by^ing upon, or too near, the surface, nriucfeW its efficacy 
seems to be lost by evaporation. While the v^uable quali- 
ties of Sonne manures, such as salts of various kinds, are 
constantly sinking into the earth, the contrary, in a great^ 
measure, seems to be the case with barn-dung. 

Old graveyards, where the Dead lie closely intered, are 
always femarkable for tlieir fertility : The "miasma produced 
from the putrefying matter, though laid at a great depth, is 
constantly risings and of course enriching ihe surface; and 
such, to a certain extent, would seem to be the case with 
baf^-dung, while in a decomposing state. 

Mr. Peters observes, however, that grass-crops are *«n 
exception to the general rule, ot deriving most benefit from 
barn-dung when well buried; as he has always found this 
manure, like all others, most efficacious in the growth of 
grasses, when used as a top-dressing. t 

It^ouid seem that, forljtops ot this description, its. effi- 
cacy is principally in serving as a covering to the ground, 
and thereby preventing the escape o^ moisture, wiiich is 
more or less particularly essential*^ to the growth ot 
grasses. 

We imagine it will usually be found more effectual, as a 
top-dressing, for some grasses than for others; and always 
most so on the drier grounds. For tap-rooted grasses, v*'e 
think this manure should be buried in the soil. 

Under Earths, we have described the method of burn- 
ing peat, and thus reducing it to ashes, for a manure ; but 
we are induced to condemn the practice, unless, perhaps, 
where it abounds in great quantities on the suj^ace of the 
earth, as in the county of Sullivan, and the northerly part 
of t^erkimer, and its vicinity, in this .State, and in various 
other parts of the Country. '^*'' 

29 



526 FACER'S ASSISTANT. 

Generally speaking, it is believed that peat may bfe more 
advantageo^ly used in composts, in the way before de- 
scribed ; as Sin this way its fects will be greater, and 
much more permanent^ as a manure. 

Where the surface is but thinly covered with peat, it 
may ^e mostly burnt off, in a dry time, after the land is 
ckared ; and then the ashes lie on the land where they are 
wanted : But in such, case it would eventually prove more 
advantageous to the land to roi or decompose ihe peat, with 
lime, as before mentioned; after which the black mass re- 
maming may be mixed with the earth below, so as to ren- 
der it more permanently productive. 

A surface of peat of tiis description may, however, be 
successfully cultivated with yearly crops of potatoes, un4il 
the peat, by roting away, can be mixed with the earth be- 
low;, so as tQ form a mixture suitable for other crops. 

Under Mfis, that article is recommended as a manure 
for potatoes.J:|r 

We have no doubt^ that peat made fine,, and mixed with 
some suitable earth, would answer a better purpose; as 
what 'seems most essential to the growth of these rootflkis 
to be placed where they can most easily extend, having at 
the same time a due degree of air and moisture; and it is 
probably for this reason that they grow well under a mere 
covering of straw. 

Seaweed (Mga Marina) is afforded in consider^le 
quantities on many parts ot our seacoast, and is valuable as 
a ii^anure, particularly tor light dry soils. For clays it is 
not so good. It is best to be ploughed in the soil while 
green ; as, when it has become dried, it is not so valuable 
as a manure, 

Jtjbas two advantages over barn-dung ; one in common, 
however, with naost other manures, it contains no see^lsof 
weeds; the other is, it tends to render light lands more 
compact, an^ for that reason crops of wheat raised on them 
are but lit"^ aflfected with mildew ; while wheat grown on 
lands long manured with the contents of the barn-yard, be- 
coming thereby more loose and friable, is found, in Great- 
britain at least, to be most liable to this disorder. 

Mr. Davy, in his Memoir to the Board of Agriculture in 
England/ after mentioning the different results of analyzed 
earths which were found extremely fertile, observes, that, 

' In supplying animal or vegetable manure, a temporary 
food is only provided for plants, which is in all cases ex- 
hausted by means of a certain number of crops; but when a 
soil is rendered of the best possible constitution and tex- 
ture, with regard .toiits earthy parts, its fertility may be 
considered as pertriifi^ntly established. It becomes capa,ble 
of attractiog a lart»e portion ot vegetable nourishment from 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 227 


the atmosphere, and of producing its crops with compara- 
lively little labor and expense.* 
Sse further, Earths ^ 

Wnen manures oi toe common kir^ds are to be applied, 
let tht^m be laid on pretty plentitully, and generally tor that 
crop #hich needs them mosi They should be aoplied 
evenly 'o the soil. It is but too common lo see dung scat- 
tered thickly round where the heaps were laid in caning 
out; while the ground farther off has little or none; bui this 
is miserable management. All kinds of dung,, in Composts 
or otherwise, should be mixed with the i^oil as fitobn after 
carting out as possible, as they loose much by drying and 
evaporation. ^ .^ 

It should, however, be remembered, that soils may be 
overcharged with coraposis,*or with pw barn-dung. Too 
much even ot composts in a sandy soil tends to overheat it, 
anilithus lessen instead of increasing its moii^re; and too 
much m clays tends to produce too rank a growth. Raw 
bann-dung may, however^ be buried pleniifufiy in clays, 
where its fermeiitation will be so slow as not to produce 
tdfe greai a degree of fertility .A^^, In sand, however,* it is 
otherwise.. Composts, or even raw barn dung, is much 
more efficacious to the growing plants, when laid in th|^ 
drills where they are planted, than when mixed generally 
with the soil; but as this requires much more labor Ihid 
exoense, and as the ground becomes hardened by^cariing 
oi^the manure, it is doubttul whether much is, in general, 
gained by the practice. 

MAPLE (Acer.) There are nine sorts of this tree, 
enun»erated by Botanists, in this Country; the most valua- 
ble of which is the sugar-maple; of which kind only some- 
thing shall be said. # 

Where the Farmer wishes to save his sugar maple- trees,, 
he ought not to tap them in the common way; but, instead 
of this, bore a hole two or three inches into th,!© tree, out 
of which the sap can be drawn ; and let it be pluged up 
after the sap has done runing. 

The method of making the sugar is too wejf known* to 
need any minute description. It would be often well, how- 
ever, if those who make this sugar, were to observe more 
cleanliness, in regard to the vessels in which the sap is 
gathered. Old troughs, which have lain for years exposed 
to the weather, are not very proper receptacles for the sap, 
if regard be had to the cleanliness of the sugar, and -of 
course to its value. Some make use of vessCTs ijiiade in 
the Jprm ofj^ails^ which they keep for the purpose, and this 
is certainly at least more cleanly. The^ vessels can be laid 



22a FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

% 

up every year, after the time of using them is past, and be 
preserved many years. 

In clearing pasture-lands wh#h abound with sugar-maple, 
it would be well to preserve these trees, as they do no in- 
jury to the pasture; but the difficulty is, that as soon as 
iheyj^ecome mor6 exposed to the winds they are* blown 
down. But let all the small maples in such grounds be left, 
and in a few years these will grow up with sufficient 
strength of root to withstand the winds, and become an ar- 
ticle of profit and ornamental to thB farm. They may also 
be very easily diig up in the woodlands, and transplanted 
into such pastures. 

I'his is a piece of econpmy whifch the Farmer would d'O 
well to observe, if be wishes his farm to yield due supplies 
of sugar, when thutjirticle sh^l have become more scarce. 
Twenty trees to an acre would do little or no injury to the 
paHiire ; an|||^en acres of such a maple-orchard would, in a 
few years, ^peid no inconsiderable quantity of sugar. By 
boring the trees, as above directed, no essential injury is 
done to them; so that they might be increasing in grow^th 
for Hllf a century, or perhj|ps double that length of tim^b 

The sugar of the maple may be grained in the manwr 
directed for graining the sugar of the beet; or it may be 
done in the vessel in which the sap is boiled, if it be not 
to6^ large for the purpose. 

* Ste Beet. ^ 

, The trees may be raised from cutings, or from tne 
s^ds. 

MARES. Those which are kept for breeding are only 
here to be noticed. 

^j^res should not be suflFered to breed, till after they are 
four years old. They should besfree from distemper&p lest 
their Colts inherit them. They should be of good color 
ahd size, well made, strong, and spirited, with bright p*rom- 
inent eyes?l If the Mare have any defects, she should not be 
put to a Horse having the same. About the 1st of June is 
the^ proper time to put her to the Horse, and every ninfh 
day afterwards, till she refuses to tkke him. 

Mares with Foal should be housed pretty early in the 
Fall, and, be well kept till foaling. They should not be 
riden swiftly, nor put to drawing or carrying burdens, for a 
month or two betore foaling. The smell of a hide newly 
taken oflF will make a Mare lose her Foal. When about to 
foal, they t^ould be kept in a yard by themselves. 

It isw very desirable to have the breeding Mares cast 
their Colts after the likeness of the Horse, astiin that^ase 
their own form aSd qualities are not so essential. They 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT, 229 

should also give plenty of milk, in order that the Colts have 
a good first Summer's growth. A further and very essen- 
tial req«isite is, that they #ould be sure in being got with 
Foal every yeai^ in order that the ©wner may not be disap- 
pointed in his expectations of profit. 

Go6d |>r^ding Mares are profitable ; but those n^ pos- 
sessing the above qualities had bettef be kept tor some 
other .use. Pastures which are wet, and bear coarse 
glasses, are usually applied with more advantage t#keep- 
ing breeding Mares than to any other purpose. ■^, ^ '^. 

MARLE. See Manures. 

MEADOWS. All mowing-lands are properly mea€i|^s; 
but, when we speak of thest in geRer|^, we mean low moist 



grounds, which in their natural state are best fited fo|^the 
Many. pieces of land of this description, vJPch bear no- 



production of grass. 



thing but coarse wild gp-ass, might be made the best of 
lands by hollow-draining, and manuring with sand or other 
pj^oper manure. This will ren#er them fit for the [Slough, 
^nd well*4suited for; the production of the largest crops of 
grass. Three tons of hay to the acre, beside Fall-pasturing, 
or perhaps a second crop, may be had from such pieces 
of land, after being thus improved. Such land would then 
l^ worth two hundred dollars an acre ; while, perh'a^, in 
ire natural state it would not be worth thirty. 

Farnnters should study their own ease, pleasure, and |^ro- 
fit, by filing a small piece of meadow so as to yield them a 
sufficiency of -hay. An acre, at two mowings, can be made 
to yield four tons of hay, and at' this rate ten acres would 
yield sufficient for a hundred-acre farm. The greate»i.;ease, 
andgaving of expense, in gath^ering forty tons of hay from 
ten acres of fine smootlf meadow, instead of perhaps twenty- 
five acres of rough meadow, ought of itself to be a sufiicieint 
inducement for the Farmer to improve a part'of his mea- 
dows, so as to answer in place oif the whole. 

Meadfiws may bt pastured in the Fall, without much in- 
jury; but not closely. The after-growth of grass should 
never be too shortly eaten, but a part should be left to 
cover the roots during Winter.^ Good meadows are often 
spoiled by close feeding in the Fall ; and in addition to this 
many Farmers practise feeding them in ihe Spring, until 
such time as the upland pastures have grown. 

By these means the meadow is poached, an^the roots of 
the grass torn to pieces, in such manner that* not more 
thfi one-half of the crop is to be expected, that might be 
obtained, 'by pasturing moderately in the Fall, and none in 
the Spring. ■.-' 



230 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

By this bad management, too, all the best grasses are 
eaten out, ^ cattle will eat these the closest ; or, being 
more tender/they are destroyed by the feet of the cattle ; 
and in the mean time tli^e wild grasses usu^p their places, 
to the great injury of the meadow. 

Wliere a meadow is quite wild, it should be mowed 
rather, before the grass has attained its full size, and in this 
way It Ttj^y yield a tolerably good second crop; while each 
crop, #y being mowed while very green, and by adding a 
peck of' silt to every ton, may be converted into good fod- 
der. ■ Bjf, mpvving wet meadows very early, the grass may 
be out oi" the way before the heavy rains which often fall in 
the moDth of July Meaiiows which are entirely of wild* 
gra^s ^re mucli loss liable to be injured, by close pasturing 
and the treading of g|I|1q, than%iny other; the treading of 
such grass will not ^entially injure it, and the cattle are 
nevi"!" disposed to eat it very closely. 

For destroying moss in meadows, see Moss. ^ 

MELON (Cucttmis Melo.) Seeds^ brought from the 
SouthH^ard produce the besj melons, and the seeds shoi|||^ 
occasionally be renewed by a fresh, supply Jrom that 
quarter. 

Mr.' Miller says they should be three years old before 
planting, and that those which will swim in water should 
be rejected. 

The ends of the runers, and the fruit last formed,^ safs 
Mrj, Deane^ Should be taken off, in order that the frpit first 
formed may have more nourishment, grow larger, and ar- 
rive to greater perfection. 

A sandy loam, with a southern exposure, is best for me- 
lons, g^ good manure to be put under them, when plant- 
inigj^ts an old compost made of good^ loam and the dung of 
Neat-cattle or Swine. The^Cantel%fupe is the finest-t*ted 
melon. 

The above observations apply equally to the watermelon 
(cucuvius anguria) the mode of culture of each, being well 
known, lequires no particular description. , 

See Insects, for the means of keeping these from the 
young plants. 

METHEGLIN. A hundred pounds of honey is general- 
ly used to make a barrel of this liquor; but Mr. Deane says 
he found ninety pounds to answer very well. It improves 
considerably^ by age, and becomes as strong *as common 
wines. The liquor is made thus: 

Take of honey and clear water, in the proportions abjve 
mentioned, and boil them for an hour : When the liquor is 
cool, barrel itj adding some ginger, cloves, and macej 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 231 

though it will answer tolerably well without these. Some 
yeasty must be put in the cask to ferment it. Let it have a 
little *vent, while fermenting; but close the vent as soon as 
most of the fermentation, is over. It will be improved by 
being bottled, after five or six months. 

MIL6EW. Mr. Young sayS that when the wheat-stem 
has a particular cast of a bluish green, it is then affected 
with mildew. ' ^ 

Mr. Marshal directs, that as soon as wheat is discovered 
to be struck with mildew it should be cut ; and \that this 
serves to prevent \\\g effects of the mildew; that wheat may 
*e thus cut th^e wee ks^ before the usual time'of harvest- 
ing. ' '^ , • ■»- .*..,>. 

The grain in th^ case ^\\\ be simller than usual, ^ut 
will make much better flour, and*he quanuty will be 
greater,' as the skin will then be found very, thin. If' the 
grain ha§ attained its lull, size, though only in' the milk, it 
is sufficient; it receive^ that nourishment from ^he stalk 
which serves to mature it. The green stalks ot the wheat 
tie^t be sufficiently dried, beforf stacking; and when Parted 
in they ^1 be found bright an& clear of the mildew, and 
will make good fodder. ' ^ 

Mildew is probably owing to a revulsion of the sap in the 
stalks of the wheat, occasioned by dool nights, when the 
atmosphere has become cooler than the earth, which in' that 
cfse^rces the juices upward too fast, and thus bursts open 
the stales ; as they are perhaps more easily split than those 
of any other plant whatever. The knowledge of this, how- 
ever, points to no practicable preventive of mildew; all that 
can be done is to counteract its effects^ as above directed. 

In treating of mildew, we mean to be understojad to 
speak of that disease of wheat^ which causes the stalks to 
bec^e covered, in a gf^eater (^ less degree, with a redish 
substance, something similar to the rust of iron. 

We have seen wheat which was in no wise affected in 
this way; but still of no value;. being almost wholly desti- 
tute of grains of any size wor.th preserving. 

This disease we call blight; but, as we know of no means 
of preventing it, we shall Content ouji^elves with barely 
ihentioning, that we have seen its ravages most complete 
on intervale'grounds, adjoining waters which occasioned a 
heavy fog in the morning. Wheat should never be sowed 
on such ground. tf .% 

For preventing mildew, let wheat always b^sowed suffi- 
ciently early, as this disease is usually much tne ^lost fatal 
to i^e late-sown grain. 

oee, ^Jso, Sowing, for the means^ of making Nvh^at and 
other grain ripen early. 



:*:'^ 



232 ' FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 



MILKWEED (Jsdefiias Syriaca.) Under Greens, we 
have mentioned the young stalks of this plant) as an article 
of f6od. The plant is also called silkweed, on account of 
the pod it produces,* which conlaiiis a vegetable silk. This, 
adhering to the see%s, is calculated to waft ^lem by the 
winds in every direction. *"* 

This plant has been (considered as a troublesome weed, 
ir> mu^ of the northern' parts of this State; but perhaps 
the use which may be made of the pods, of the leaves, and 
of the milk of the plant, may be found much more than 
sufficient to counterbalance any inconvenience to be suffer- 
ed from it. v' ♦ 

We^ will first ppiit out the use made of the pods, in 
France, as communicated by M^> Genet r 

* The silky substan*^ collected from that plant (says he) 
is' tSed in France, with great advantagej and is cultivated 
under the naihe of houatte or nvading. They cari^ it, spin 
it, and rrtanufacture it into velvets^cloth. and hose, with or 
without the inteirmixture of cotton or silk. ,^ 

' Ii%S also used for wading to stuff quilts and coun^|fc 
panes; and for that purpose it is far preferablejio cotton, 
being warmer* and lighter. To card it by itself, they ex- 
pose it in bags to the steam of water; but, mixed with silk 
or cotton, it does not i-equire the intervention of the steam, 
to be made into rolls and spun. The velvets and* other tex- 
tures made of that vegetable silk, which I have seen m Eu- 
rope, resembled, if not exceled, the brilliancy of ^ silk; 
and, with proper mordants, had received the mo3t elegant 
coloring.* 

Mr. ^Genet subsequently adds : * I have been informed 
that a French Gentleman, who attends tl\^ Dyers' |[e- 
partment of the manufaciQTj of Mr. Lynch, at H^e> 
has discavered that the le#es of "the asclepias, ah Jlpro- 
bably of all the apocinUms, were an excelent substitute for 
the woad.' ';■ 

See WoAD.]^ 

< Dr. Low, of 'Albany, has also observed, that tfee milky- 
juices of the asclepias were equal, if not superior, in many 
respects, to the opi^im extractlfed from the white poppy.* 

Tlais it appears that this plant affords food, clothing, 
medicine, and matter for coloring. Probably its culti- 
vation may yet be found a matter oi considerable im- 
portance. 't^J', * ■ ■*'■ 

We have^also seen the pods gathered, as *a^ substitute 
for feather^f in making 6eds. We believe they might 
be most advantageously mixed with feaihcrs,'^ for j^at 
purpose. , . 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT* ^ 233 



MILLET (Panicum.) The stalks and leaves of*this 
plant resemble those of Indian corn, though much smaller. 
It grows to the height of about three and four feet. A sandy 
soil suits it best, and it|^ould be sown in drills, about 
three feet ap^rt. The plants should sts^d about six inches 
apart in the rows, after hoeing. It will produce as large 
crops as Indian corn, and bears i^rought admirably well. 
A crop of it sown thick, and mowed green, is exeelent 
fodder. 

* This grain (says Mr. Deane) is a gOod food for fowls 
and Swine. For tlfe latter it ''shoul«|>t be ground into nieal. 
Some mix it with flour in bread ; but it is best for pud- 
dings.' "^ '^''^ 

MOSS fl.ic//en.2) TT'here are vaHous kinds of this; 
Some grows on trees', on stones, on the shingled roofs*of 
houses, on the surface of the ground ; and sortie of a very^ 
minute kind, which is commonly called mouldy bn the sur- 
face and in the crevices ISnd cavities of almost every sub- 
stance which is .^et or moist. *l % 

*Sloss is particularly injurious to the growth of trees and 
of grass.' Its growth is encouraged on friHt-trees, where 
the soil is either too cold and wet,, too sterile and dry, or 
100 thickly planted. Where the soil is too cold and wet, 
the best remedy is hollow- draining, ai^ manuring with 
sand, Sheep dung, and other manures suitable to. the soil. 
Wherc^ it is too sterile and dry, dig away the e«irth from 
about thl^roots^ and supply its place with a mixture of earth 
and mud from ponds or creeks, or some other rich earth, 
that is better calculated to^ retain moistv3^e. Where the 
trees stand loo thick, cut part pf them aWay, rub the moss 
off the rest, and apply Forsyth*^ method oi /leading down, 
if *neQ|ssary, making use of his-^b-omfwsiciofi to preserve the 
wood.^ , . 

See: Fruit-trees. 

Where moss prevails in grass-ground, -apply a heavy 
sharp iron-toothed harrow tq it; scarify the top of the soil 
lill it is somewhat raw, strew some seeds of herdsgrass, or 
other good grass, over it, and give U a good dressing, of a 
mixture pf Sheep-dung and sand, or other warm manure 
that is suitable to a cold soil. This'^is for grounds ^suffi- 
ciently dry; but if the'moss,4?e occasioned by too much 
wetness in the'^soil, although \\ig above method may prove 
beneficial for a while ; yet notliibg short of ho^w-draining 
will ever prove effectual, for any considerE^ble^length of 
time. Gypisum will also eradicate moss ton dry Tc^feis. 

By experiments, says Mr, Deane^ it is found that, the 
common yellow moss is a good manure for potatoes^ It 



%U ^ FARMEtt^ ASSISTANT. 

would deen^to be best, however, when mixed with stable^ 
dun J, or rather laid on top of it. It is said to be very good 
to mix with lime in composts, as the lime is best <ialculated 
to dissolve the oil it contitins; and oil is known to be an 
ingredient in the foj^d of plants. iJlt is also recommended to 
be mixed in dry slindy or gravelly soilsj for the purpose 
of enabling such to retain a due degrete of moisture. 

#> MOWING. This 1bm^ a laborious employment, it be- 
comes necessary for the Mower to husband his strength to 
^ the best advantage. For this^ purpose, the first tequisite is 
to have a good sithe, of' proper length, if^ the mowing ground 
b%not too rough, weKl hang on a light stiff snead^ so that 
th^sithe will not tremble as it goes thrdugh the grass ; hav- 
in|f the edge of the: sithe to*face the nib which is held in 
th^left hand j and t<) keep if well groubd and well wheted. 
A^feiuch art is requisite in keeping a sithe in the best or- 
^ *der, as therT& is in learning>to mow well. "^ ^ 
* The «neads most' commonly used are bent In a twisted 

shape; but s6m6 use a snead wKich is nearly in the shape 
of a feaK- circle, and the latter are always prefered by th^se 
who have bieponrie used to them. They take a wider swlth 
with the sahfie extension of the arms; a larger 'cut, and 
g^ therefore may be slower; require less stooping; and froin, 
^ the position of the body which is requisite to enter the 
9 point of thef sithi^into the grass, being more twisted round 
to the right, little more is requisite than bringing the body 
to its nai&'al posture to carry the sithe through. ^, ' 

Mowers should always be at their work betimeis in the 
morning* so as to have half their day's work performed be- 
fore th^ lit at of^j|iie day; and then they can afford them* 
selvj^s a resting-spell during the most sultry hours. By 
this me do, too, the mowedjgrass has a lohger tirtie for dry- 
ing^ during the day. ^^ -i^ ^ , ^■' 
. \Vhere movping grounds or meadows are of perfectly 
smooth surface^ as they ought always to be, particular pains 
^'should always be taken in mowing to cut the grass as close 
to the ground and as evenly as possible. Mr Young' re- 
marks, that grass will never thrive well that is not mown 
quit^ close; and the loss in the crop where this is not done 
is very considerablej,^;<Vs one indh.at the bottom weighs 
morA>;than several atlhe top.' 

MOVVINO GROIJND. ^We generally Ipply this term 
to aruble lipids that are laid down to grass. But little is 
necessar»'t<)^be said under this head, further than What has 
been saiWi^rider Grasses and MeAdows. This may, how- 
ev^ be observed of all gra^^ges which are not biennial; that 
^h^e the ground becomes bound it is good husbandry to>- 



FARMER^ 4S^SISTAN.T. 225 

tear it well with a sharp ij'on^topthed harrpw, after manur- 
ing, and in ^is way to mix the manure /with the so^ as 
much as possible, particularly i^ the str^ength of the manure 
be such as is calculated to evaporate by. drying and expo- 
sure to the air. 0- ^ ^ 

It may^ also be farther ot^served, t^t it is a waste oft 
money to* lay down to grass lands which^are" exhausted by 
severe croping, unless they are of such ' nature as can be 
recruited by gyosuqEi,^ or spme oj^^r sjoiilar top-d/'essing. 
Qenerally, if lands h^ poor, and cannot be assisted by gyp- 
sum, they ought to b^ recruited while unifier the plough, 
tiot while under grass. ^ * 

Giouod that is (AiU*of smaJl stones may be fited tolerably 
well for mowing, by. passing a roller over it after so^ibgj 
but the better. way is, to gather the stones into small heaps 
and carry them^ off, and they will then^ be of no further 
trouble in future crops. It is alniost unnetessavy to add, 
that all g^ss-grounds shoul^ be laid down smoothly, by be» 
ing well narrowed after^ sowing. 

jMUD. See Manures. 

MULBERRY (Morus,) This tree is well worth rais- 
^mg, not only for its fruit, and gre^it use in feeding Silk- 
worms, but also for its timber and for fuel, as it grows very ^^ 
rapidiy, and is ^generally well adapted to our climate. It 
grows well in a deep dry soil that is moderately rich. It 
inay be l»ised from the >seeds, or by cUiings or slips. 
'Se^%rther, HfipGE§ aad Silkworms, 

MULE. This animal, propagated by t^wJo distinct species 
of the M-qnus or Horse-tribe, to wit, thei'^^orse, commonly 
so called) and the Ass, is generally barren; though /some 
instances have been known of its breeding. 

It;is a healthy, hardy, and useful creature; 'subject to 
very few disorders; will live on the refuse. of the fields, or 
the woods; and yet, with the hardest and scantiest fare, 
will labor incessantly, and seem hardly sensible of fatigue. 

Mules live much, longer than Horses. They are obsti- 
nate, however, and require to be kept almost constantly in 
use, as a few days of idleness, renders them very refractory, 
when again ^put to labor. '^^ ,^ , 

Where they can be ^ept pretty constantly in use, either 
in draft, or under the saddle, they will perform double the 
labor that a Horse is capable ^enduring, andpvith half the ^ 
expense in keeping. 

They are , also uncommonly surefooted, and itrs^ be rode 
over the roughest and steepest ways in safety, wh^re there 
would be none, when mounted on Horseback. - A 



235 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

In Spain^ theyAftre prfcfered, byvthe Grandees, to Hon^es, 
for ridingV especially in the mtjre mountainous parts of |h|t 
Country.,^ 

In every situation, where thej^ labor is almost constant^ 
required, they are certainly mii^ more profitable to keep 
than Horses; and the same may be observed, where they 
are to be used in broken mountainous Countries. 

For^ lurther observations, as far as they may be applica- 
ble* to the Mule, we x^ter the Reader to articles Hor^e, 
FoALS> See. 

MUSTARD f^ina/iis. J This plant requires a soil sui- 
iicienily strong for^tprnips.- Let the- ground be well pre- 
paredv by ploughings and harrowings\feariy in the Spring, 
and sow, of well- ripened seed^^at the rate of two quarts to 
the acre. ;^,, When the plants are a few inches high, thin 
them, so as to stand about ten inches apart^. and destroy the 
iveeds with the hoc. ' ^\ 

When the lower seeds are ripe, the middle seeds green, 
and the top oltrthe plants in blossom, cut thbm with a sickle, 
bind them in moderate-sized sheaves, and put these in sik«11 
Stacks for a few days. In this situation the green seed Will 
soon ripen. Carry the sheaves to the barn, having a large 
cloth under therh, to prevent wasting, and in a few days 
they will be fit for threshing. 

The ground lor raising this plant sh<!)tild be previously 
well cleared of weeds. " * 

The best mustard for culture is Durham mustaKd, or i^j- 
nafiis-^^vensis. The cuUure of mustard is profila^e. 

^^ MY|LTLE (M^p-ica.} This is a beautiful shrub, or tree, 
as the diiferent species or varieties of it may be ranked,, ac- 
coTdibg to the size they grpw ; but the species recommend- 
ed for culture are those which bear the most' berries, 90m- 
rnonly called the candleberry myrtle; or, Myrica'Caemfera 
JLatifoliot. . f.; , ■ . ^ ' V '■ . 

io Francejr they are ci^l,tivated for the wax afforded . from 
the-berries. It is extracted by boiling them in water, when 
the wax rises to the top. Four povivjds of the berries aiford 
one pf wax. Candles made of it4)urn with a cl^ar white 
fiunie, and, if burned when newly made, afford aa agreeable 
and salubrious odour. 

.The wax is superior in quality to beeSwax, and applica- 
ble to all the purposfes Jor, which the latter is used. The 
fc wax of the myrtle is of a pale-gre.en ; but, as is observed by 
Mr. Greeny its color may be deepened volthiat hue, by 
throwing some alkali into the -water in which the berries 
are boiled. 



"^ % 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. ^ 237 

Other ingredienfs for coloring may be'used, for ^IviDg it 
IdifTerent colors which arc pleasant to the eye; such, for in- * 
stance, as the juice ot the pokeberr^ (Phytolacca) to give 
it a color equal to the famous' Tynan purple; or, slighter 
infusions bt the juice, io give red of various hues. 

Tallow might have diffiirerit colors given to it, in a simi-' 
l,ar manner. ; 

Mr. Green says*thivcandleberry myrtle is to be foiind^ irt 
plenty, on, the shores of th6 Cheiapeakei and nfear most of 
the stream's which flow into that bayf 

He has also found it scattered over the Srate of Newyork, 
gtowing in a ^et^soil, and very rarely exceeding six ^e%t in 
height. ' '^^^- ' '■ ' . ' ' ■ "- 

^e has also' seirf^%what he deems a variety of the same 
sj:^0t:ies, on upi^n'^s in Connecticut, growing to the height 
pf twelve feet; but this is not so productive of fruit. 
K ViX liouisiana, a species of it, with pointed lea^ves,, grows 
as large as the chcrrytree. 



In. 

NEAT-CATTLlE. All tame animals which are fed in 
pastures, i^r^ properly speakiftg, caule; but, to distinguish 
the Cio^rkind from others, tltey ^re usually called ■M'cat- 
cattle, "■ , • '. . : 

Of these, are various breeds, which appear to be original 
and dikinct, though perhaps climates and soils may have 
done something in producing these v^ieties. The most 
obvious of these is the, Galloway^ or fiolled breed, as they 
are called in, Greatbritain, or the Cattle without hornso 
Other breeds in that Country, where, perhaps, the greatest 
variety is to be found, may be well worthy of notice. 

1. The original or wild race of that Country. Color in- 
variably white ; horns tiped with black ; end of the ears, in- 
side and outside, redish; black muzzles; flesh fine and 
well tasted. ' " 

2. The jQevonshir0 breed, said to be in part descended 
from the above ratse. Color, light. red, with a light dun ring 
round the eye; thin face; thin^ skin; hips wide; tail quite 
low; rather small- boned ; horns turning upward. The" 
Cows yield good rich milk. Oxen good for draft, and 
faten early: 

3. Duuh^M short horned breed. Hide thin ; horns short; 
tails set high ; color red and whilf > nearly mixed ; tender 



^38 FARMER»s ASSISTANT. # 

constitution)^ I fateii kind^f} ^nd yifeid large quantities both 
-of milk^^nd/tallow. 

4. Lancashire breed, with straighter horns than those pf 
any other; spreading widely and extending forward; large 
and square-built; fore quarters deep,} milk nof abundant 
but rich; the aninial hardy. From an intermixture of this 
breed with others, Mr. Bak&well Obtained his Dishley breed, 
which are remarkable for fating very easily, and upon the 
most valuable parts; ifiough they yield but litilfc milk or 
tallow, when compared with some others. 

Considerable pains have been taken to introduce Bulls of 
^his,,or similar breeds, into this State,' without airy apparent 
knowledge ol the uses to which the Calves from such Bulls 
were to be applied. It should have been, understood^, f-ljat 
^ such breeds are not «o weU fited for Milch-cows alitor 
iating-cattle, and in England are raised for that purpose. ^^ 

5. Highland breeds or Kyloes. Horns turned upwards"; 
colors various, chiefly black, though sometimes brindled or 
dun; hair long and cipse; bodies, lyell shaped; best suited 
lor cold mountainous countries ; good for milk, and kind to 
faten. ' v -^ ; ■ 

fi f 6 Polled 6re<rfi?,, before mentioned. Shaped like the* 
Devonshire breed, though rather shorter; hides moderately 
thick; hardy, and faten kindly on the best parts; Aesh good, ; 
and well mixed with fat: Oxen good for draft. A variety 
of this breed of Cows, called the Suffolk Diins^ are excell- 
ent for, the dairy. These are small, lean, big-bellied, and 
of a dun color. ♦ 

7. Mdernay^ or French breed. Small f light-ried j- smooth 
neat horns; tender constitutions; rich milkers; flesh good. 

8. Welsh breed: Chiefly black ; small, with horns thick, 
and turning upward; well shaped; vigorous, and well cal- 
culated for labor. ^ 

Our cattl^ mostly resemble ^those of the Devonshire; but 
evidently we have mixtures of various breeds; so much soj, 
that no specific characters can be given them. We have 
also the polled bt^eed distinct by itself ; though sometimes 
they are found mixed with others. 

Mr. Livingston observes, that Black-cattle are uncommon 
in France; ,bu|: almost universal in Southholland and Bra- 
bant; that tlfe butter made in, the latter Countries is, much 
inferior to that of the former; and hence he concludes, that 
the butter of Black-cattle is inferior to that made from 
Cows of lighter colors, which is agreeable to the common 
deceived opinion. '^'^ 

* A perfect Cow (say the Compilers of The Comfilcte 
Grazfd-r) should have a broad smooth forehead ; black eyes; 
large clean horns ; thick skin; large deep body; strong 
muscular thighs; large white udder {yellow is better) with 



. <;, FARMER'S ASSISTANT, 239 

four lori| clastic teats, together with every other token re- 
quisite in^a Bull, allowing for the difference of se3^,( They 
should also be youn|^ ; lor Miich-kine are not good tor 
bree^ling after they are twelve ; though they will often liv© 
much longer^ if kept well,^and free frorh diseases.* 

Heifers generally arrive at the age of guberty when they 
are eighteen months 5 vtliough instances have occured where 
they have brought forth Calves before that time. The bet- 
ter they are kept the sObnf r they. |v|ll .breed. If, however, 
they breeti so early, tfiey Should be highly kept 3 for, other- 
*^wise, they will be apt to be stintejd in thieir subsequent 
growth. ., ^ ..»: 

Mr. Bakewtll m^A io keep his Dishly breed of Hdfers 
front) thr Bull uhtil^ihe age of three; but Sir John Sinclair 
attj4butes to this their often missing being with Calf. It is 
believed to b^ best to follow Nature's law : Let them go to 
t^e Bull as soon as they feel the inclination. 
^Breeds of cattle are usually much improved by crossing 
0]p mixing different kinds together; and it also seems' es- 
senticil that there should be no pr^-creation between animals 
which are nearly rclaifcd. Let there be little or no consan- 
giiinitf between the Byll and the Cow which is put to him. 
This seems to be^ agreeable to the laws of Nature 5 and, 
j^mong lV|en, is strikingly exemplified in the degeneracy 
©{the r^ce, where the Peasantry of some small secluded 
disiricts constantly intermarry ^ith Relatives; or where the 
pri^ of Faiiailies has served. to preclucie a due intermix- 
ture with others. , 

But in the best breeds of all animals^ some of their yoving 
Ivill always be found .more promising than others; among 
cattle, therefore, ysrhere a selection is to be made, pain^ 
should be constantly taken to select the most promising 
for raising; provided they are brougKt forth in the pro- 
per season ; and this for Calves should be early in the 
Spring. Those brought forth late will tiot so well endure 
the, succeeding Winter 5 and, if Heifers, will usually go 
to the third year, before they arq with Calf; while those, 
whic"h are earl|er calved, will usually bring forth a year 
sooner.- _ ,. , . ^ ,. "*'' ',. .,:, - . ■^■' > 

In the selection aftd improvetnent of breeds of cattle, a 
due regard is to be had to the uses Jbr which they are in- 
tended. Thus, if; th6 best Milch-cows are desired, select 
from the breeds of those whigh ,are known to be the best 
for that use; tb^t is, atimiting the size to be equal, those 
which yield the rtiOst of iM(^' ci^cavi as. makes the best biitji-^, 
ter, in any one year, ar^,|;enerttily ,to be preicred. This is 
to *be ascertained'^ by keeping the milk of different Cows 
separate,-apd then the quantity and quality of ^^"T7 r^o.d«KtP. 
can be easfly determined. ' '' 



240 FARMER»s ASSISTANT.^ 

The size of Cows is not^ so material; as, it is found that 
"^ll catilje eat -nearly in pfoportion tb^ their respective ,sizes. 
**\Vhat would be necessary to feed 'one of the larg^ Lanca- 
shire brefed of Cows, Would be nearly suflBcient for two of 
the Aldernay' breed, before mentioned ; while the milk of 
fthe two latter would, probably, nearly double that of the 
former. There is hardly any breed of Neat-cattle but wh'at 
are sufficiently large for Milch- cows, if well kept ; for it 
should be remembe^e^,, that all cattle w^ir ^row much 
larger, if well kept^ tiian'if kept poor ly^ during tfcle Winter 
season particularly. 

In Greatbritain, much pains have bi?en taken to select 
breeds which should unite the two most valuable qualities, 
of being th^ best for milking, and the kindest to faten ; but 
hitherto such breed is said not to have been found. Sir 
John Sinclair^ how ever i ohservesy 

*-It is probable, tfiat by great attention a breed migH_t~be 
reared, the males of which might be well calculated tor th:e 
shambles, and the females p^odUce abundance of niilk ; ar^d 
yet when they reached eight or nine years might be easily 
fatened.' ^ 

He further adds, that s6me of tlie English and Scotish 
breeds have nearly reached this polnl of perfection. 

If the" object of the Farmer or Grazier be merely to raise 
cattle for fating, then, perhaps, some of thp larger breeds 
may sometimes be best. In large towns, particularly, ^ 
piece of a mammoth Ox, when highly fated, seems -more 
desirable, and will usually command a greater price, than 
an. equal weight of equally good^ beef of a small animal. 
The Dishly breed, before mentioned, are highly esteemed 
in Greaibriiain, foi- this purpose. The most essential pdints, 
however, in a breed for Fating-cattle afe, that they grovir 
rapidly, in order that they may soon attain their full si^e ; 
that they are of comely shape^ for this will usually enhance 
their price with the Butcher; that they keep^^easlly and 
faten kindly, and on \.\\e bestjiarts^ as the English Graziers 
say ; and that their beef be tender, sweet- flavored, and well 
Inixcd with fat. ' ; ^' 

*" In this Country, but little has been done in the- way of 
* raising cattle which a^e only intehtled for fating. Our 
Working-oxen are usually .bought up, at the age of seven 
or eiE^ht years, for the purpose. For the best bi*eed Of 
Working-oxen, therefore, due attention should be had 'as 
well to their possessing the foregoing requisites for good 
Fating-cattle, as to their beihg strong, hardy, quick- paced, 
and good tor the draft. 

The> signs of a good Ox, saj^ Mr- Z>faw«', are, thick, soft, 
smooth, sWthair; short thick head; glossy smooth horns; 
large sh%gy" ears; wide, iorehead; full ^black eyes; wide 

«" V ■" •■■■" ^- * 



' I^ARMlER^s ASSISTANT. 241 

tiostrils ; black lips; thick fleshy neck; large shoulders j 
^ broad reins; large belly; thick rump and ihighs ; Waight 
bacli; long tail, well covered with hair; and short broad 
hools. The best colors are brown, dark-red, and brindled^ 

Young Steers, which are intended for ,labor, should be 
early yoke(^ and taught to draw 5 for if this be delayed till 
they have attained considerable growth, they are more diffi- 
cult to break. They should be moderately worked at first 
with old Oxen, till they have acqiiired sufficient strength, 
and become enured to labor. 

If yokes be used, let that part which rubs against the 
breast and neck be rubed with tallow, when worked much 
In wet weather, to prevent soreness, 

Wheti an Ox is eight years old, he should be turned off 
to faten ; and, to promote his fating, let a little blood be 
taken Irom him. If kept longer, his flesh will not be so 

Lord Kaimes observes, that, among cattle, the strongest 
rules, and claims precedence by taking the lead; that if the 
strongest Ox be not therefore first unyoked, he is apt to be 
unruly while his Fellow is leting. loose. /^ 

At the age of four years, all Neat-cattle «have onfe circu- 
lar ring at the root of their horns, and one additional ring 
yearly thereafter. When, however, they become quite old, 
these rings become so indistinctj as no longer to be sepa- 
rately perceptible. 

For the Bull, the finest-looking Calf, possessing, as near- 
ly as can be judged, the foregoing requibites for a good Ox, 
should be selected, and from the .finest of the breed which 
he is^intended to propagate; and he shpuld not be suftered 
to go to ^ Cow until he has attained a good growth. Suf- 
fering youngi or dwarfish, or ill looking Bulls to go to 
Cows, only tends tQ degenerate the breed; and, in the two 
former cases, the Cow, by being served with such, fre- 
•[uently misses having a Calf. 

The Bull should have good keeping, so that he may be^ 
in prime condition when he is put to Cows. When he is^. 
about eight years old, if he grows cross and mischievous, 
he should be castrated and turned off tofaten. Bulls may 
be broke while young, and worked, and then they prove 
much less refractory. ^^ 

Iij regard to Calves, ihose which are brought forth early, 
.are best for raising, as the^ will, endure th^, first W^inter 
better; and, if Heifers, wiil^generally be with Calf a year 
sooner than those brought forth late. The most promising 
Calves should be selected for rearing, for the uses intended, 
and the rest fated and killed. In fadng siich^^Mr. M§.c^n{.- 
advises, that they be taken fi'om the Cow the next day after 
they are calved; and let them have only two teats of tlie 



24^ FARMER'S ASSISTANT. . 

Cow to suck during the fii'st week, three, duHng the 
second, and all during the third and fourth; and in this 
way, he says, they will be fater in the end, than if they had 
all ai first. T^^e teats which are not given them should be 
previously milked. 

In Holland, Calves are fated in coops or pens made for 
the purpose. These are merely narrow boxes with bottoms 
of ialiice work, just so wide as to admit the Calf to lie 
down, but not to turn < round, and sufficiently high to stand 
up in. They hold but one Calf at a time, which is kept in 
darkness. When it is to be fed, a small hole is opened in 
front, just large enough to put its head through, which it 
readily does, being attracted by the light, and the pail of 
milk is then presented to it to drink, A lump of chalk is 
also hung up by the door for the Calf to lick at. The box 
or pen is to be kept sweet and clean. In this way, says 
« The Complete Grazier* they fateh much faster than in any 
other.^ 

Whether Calves are kept for fating^ or for rearing, feed- 
ing them three times a day is much preferable to feeding 
them only twice; but, whether fed twice or thrice a day^ 
the times of feeding should be regular^ anj as nearly equi- 
distant "as possible. 

Dark coops or boxes, something similar to those abave 
described, are also provided by some of those who make a 
business of fating Calves for market, in the vicinity of the 
large towns in England, where they are treated in a manner 
similar to that above mentioned. Fresh litter is constantly 
provided for. them to lie on, and particular attention is paid 
to their cleanliness. The use of the chalk is for correcting 
the acidity of their stomachs. Pains are also there taken to 
have Calves brouglit forth at different times during Winter 
for fating, as the veal then commands a great price. 

They are kept five or six weeks, before they are killed ; 
and a little before killing, and also, when about four weeks 
oldy they are plentifully'bled ; taking as much away as they 
^.cah well bear, which is usually about a quart at each time. 
The principal use of the bleedings is, to give a superior de- 
gree of whiteness to the veal. Keeping them in dark places 
tends to keep them quiet, so that they do not tatigiie them- 
selves by too much exercise. They are fated \vith vaTious 
kinds of food beside milk, as that is in such places too valu- 
able to be much used. The most common articles used are^ 
choped turnips and potatoes, grains, bran, sweet hay, 8cc, 
No doubt, a little flaxseed broth, mixed with hay-tea, would 
be an excelent addition. 

In regard to the best food for rearing of Calves, the me- 
thod pursued by Mr. Crooky as mentioned in * The Letters 
and J^afiers of the Bath and West of England Society:^ 



^FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 245 

deserves to be mentioned. In 1787, he purchased three 
sacks of linseed, value 21. Ss, (equal to about nine dollars) 
which lasted him three years. One quart of seed was boiled 
in six quarts ot water for ten minutes, to a jelly, which was 
given the Calves three times a day, mixed with a little hay- 
tea. Thus he was enabled to rear, in 1787, seventeen 
Calves; in 1788 twenty-three; and in 1789, fitteen, without 
any milk at all: And he stages, ihaj his Calves throve mucli 
better ihajn those of his NeighbO|^s %hich were fed with 
milk. Thus, it seems, that less than eighteen cents worth 
of flaxseed, with a trifle ot hay, is sufficient ior one Calf, 
Linseed oiNcakes, when pulverized and boiled, make an 
equally good broth, or jelly. 

Tjie above is nearly similar to the directions of Mr. Clif^^ 
of t^is State. Hj directs, that, after the Calf has been ted 
for a fortnight upon sweet milk, give it skim-milk, mixed 
with aa equal or larger quautuy of flcixseed broth or jelly, 
and let it be given to it inilk-warm. Enough jelly may be 
boiled at once lor three or four da^s; but, if the weather be 
warm, it will spoil by souring. With this drink, Mr. Cilfs 
says, Calves v/ill thrive as well as if fed on sweet-milk. 
For learning a Calf to drink at first, the best method is, to 
let it suck your^nger with its nose in the milk. 

Mr, Buddf of' Massachusetts, directs to take the Calves 
from the Cows when three days old, and feed them with 
gruel composed of one-third barley and two third oats, each 
ground fine, and the mixture sifted. A quart o| this gruel 
is to be given to each Calf, morning and evening. The 
gruel is made by taking one quart of the flour, and twelve 
of Water, and boiling them together for half an hour, and is 
to be given when milk-warm. 

In about ten days after commencing the feeding, tie up 
and suspend a bundle of sweet hay in the middle of the pen 
where thei-Calves are kept, which they will eat by degrees. 
A little of the flour put into a trough for them to lick, is 
also of service. Feed them till two months old, increasing 
. the quantity as they grow larger. Half a bushel of the 
above mixture is sufficient for one Calf. 

The' communication of the above method, obtained for 
Mr. Budd the prize from the Agricultural Society of Mas- 
sachusetts. 

When Calves are put into pasture, it should be such as 
is dry and sweet. White-clover is the best for them ; Red- 
clover or trefoil is also good. Mr, U Hommedieu recom- 
mends that there be no water in the pasture, but sufficient 
of shad^. The effect of this is, that the Calves learn to 
feed at night, or when the dew is on, and lie by in the day ; 
and as grass, while wet with dew, is believed to be most 
Dourishing, they will, in this way, thrive much better than 



24^ FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

those which have free access to water; for this, iris con- 
tended by Mr. U Hommedieu^ tends to stunt them and make 
them pot-bellred Probably, the better way is, to give them 
a little nourishing drink, at certain times, when the dews 
iail, or at mid-day, when the weather is very warm. 

When the weather is pleasant, aittr being put to pasture, 
the males may be castraied and the females spayed, if they 
are designed lo be raised for fating. 

During the first Wintel'7, Calves should be kept in a com- 
fortable place, and have plenty of good fodder and a little 
Indian iVieal, or other nourishing food. They should have 
shelter earlier than larger catile,^ as they cannot so well en» 
dure the first approach of cold weather. "* 

Although Calves, until a year olcj, should have the best 
of keeping, let it not be supposed, that ihey will afterwards 
thrive well with very indifferent keeping. It is but too 
common for Farmers to turn their young growing cattle in- 
to poor pastures, of stinted growth, or into woods where 
there is not sufficient for them to eat ; by means of which 
their growth is retarded, and, what is sometimes worse, 
they learn to become habitualiy unruly, from the constant 
temptation they are under of breaking into fields where 
there is plenty. 

In the first settling of new countries, the extensive wood* 
lands may aiford plenty of good food for young cattle; but 
the woodlands of old settled countries afford ,but little food, 
that IS well calculated for their nourishment and growth. 
In such cases, a few cattle are sufiicient to overstock the 
woods, so as to leave them little lo eat, excepting what is 
obtained to the great injury "of the young growth of 
timber. ^ ' , 

Growing cattle, if their pastures be hot of the best, should 
nevertheless have plenty to eat of that which is middling 
good ; and the same may be observed, in reg^ird lb their 
Winter-food; they should have plenty of such ^fodder as 
they will eat freely, and they should be well sheltered from 
the severity of the weather. When exposed to cold rains 
in Winter, they are frequently more injured, than when 
exposed to much colder snow storms. From each of these 
they Should be sheltered, as well as from the cold winds. 
In short, the better and more comfortable young cattle are 
kept, the larger and more rapid will be their growth; and, 
although middling good keeping will answer, they will do 
btuter with better keeping. 

The keeping of Cows in such manner as to make them 
give the greatest quantity of milk, and with the greatest 
s lear profit, is an essential point of economy. Cqws are in 
general very poorly kept in this Country. By better keep- 
ing, they would afford more clear profiit. Give a Cow halt a 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT.' 245 

bushel of turnips, carrots, or other good root, per day, dur- 
ing the six Winter- months, beside her hay; and, if her 
Summer-feed be such as it should be, she will give nearly 
double the quantity of milk she would afford, if only kept 
during Winter in the usual manner, and the milk will bp 
richer and of better quality. 

The carrots, or other roots, at nineteen cents per bushel, 
amount to about eighteen dollars. The laddition of milk, al*/ 
lowing it to be only three quarts pe^^day, for three hundred 
days, at three cents'" per quart, amounts to twenty seven 
dollars. It shAild be remembered, too, that, when ^ Cows 
are thus fed with roots, they consume less hay ; and they 
are less liable to several diseases, which are usually the 
effect of poor keeping. 

Raw potatoes should not, however, be given to Milch- 
cows, but should first be steajtiboiled ; otherwise they will 
commonly lessen the quaritity of the milk. 

The fetsding of Milch-cows, cattle for fating, and for 
labor, with roots and cabbages, is a very prominent part 
of the employment of the British Graziers, and of Farwers 
who attend to the dairy. For this purpose, fields of turnips, 
cabbages, carrots, &c. are raised, and fed out to the cattle 
during the Fall, Winter, and early Spring. 

The Winters, however, in our northern States, being 
much severer than those of Greatbritain, renders the feed- 
ing of cattle with roots, &c. less practicable than it is in 
that Country. It is more suitable to the climate of the 
States south of Pennsylvania. Much more, however, might 
be profitably done in this way, even in Winter, than is gen- 
eralty imagined. If the Farmer, or Grazier, were first to 
provide himself with a cellar or apartment under ground, ^^ 
sufficiently large for storing away his roots, and sufficiently 
warm to prevent their freezing, with a place in it also for a 
steamboilery' for steaming the roots, he would then find but 
little difficulty in dealing out this food to his Cows, &c. 
even in the coldest weather. 

In this case, however, they must be kept in stalls, with 
troughs suitable for this kind of food. Nor is there any 
additional expense in this ; as it \s well ascertained, that 
this is the most economical method of keeping Milch, 
cows, working and fating cattle, as well during Winter as 
Sumnjer. In Winter, as they can be kept warmer, and 
more comfortably, less fodder is requisite to keep them 
well, and much less is wasted. 

5ee Soiling, for the reasons why stall feeding is also to 
be prefered in Summer. 
^ee also, Sjable, &c. 
For a description of a Steamb oiler, see that article. 



246^ FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

If Milch-cows be pastured in Summer, they should have 
the best or first feeding of each pasture-lot. 
See Pasture. 

See also, Grasses, as it respects those which are best for 
pastures. 

They should have plenty of water, and that which is good. 
It is also good for them to have plenty of shade, to which 
they can retire duritig thie heat of the day. They should be 
kept quietly, not suffered to be worried with dogs, or by 
having stones or clubs thrown at theMi, as is bOt too com» 
mon ; nor should they be forced to travel to#far, by having 
their pastures at too great a distance; for these are all 
matters which are essential, in order to their giving the 
greatest possible quantity of milk. 

In regard to milking, and the proper treatment of the 
milk, see Dairy, Cream, CIiurn, BuxtER, Cheese, &c. 

When Cows are kept very fat, they will not give so much 
milk. The proper state to keep them in, during Winter 
and Summer, is that in which ihey are usually found, when 
fed in good pastures during the latter season. On the con- 
trary, where they are suffered to grow poor during Winter, 
and particularly about the time of calving, their milk will 
be greatly lessened in quantity during the following season. 
If they are pfentifully supplied with food, as nutricious as 
that of green grass, they will usually give plenty of milk 
until very near the time of calving* 

Some Cows are naturally barren, and this is said to be 
always the case where a male and female Calf are brought 
forth together; the male in such cases is perfect, but the 
female is Incapable of propagating. 

Particular altenlion should be paid to Cows, in regard to 
their keeping, for some weeks befoi*e calving. They should 
have plenty of good h^y, and other succulent food,- such as 
roots of the kinds before mentioned, or cabbages with the 
decayed leaves taken off; or, if in the growing season, they 
should have plenty of good sweet pasture or other good 
green food. The day and night after a Cow has calved, 
she should be kept housed, and her drink should be luke- 
warm when given to her. Let her be kept up for three or 
four nights thereafter, so as not to be exposed prematurely 
to the cold or dampness of the atmosphere ; for this tehds 
greatly to weaken her. 

If she does not clean well after calving, Mr. Deane directs 
to give her a pail of warm water, with soilne wood-ashes in 
it. Particular attention should be paid to this; for, if the 
afier-birth be suffered to remain in the uterusy it will be- 
come putrescent, and the smell will sometimes communi- 
cate an infection among other breeding Cows. They will 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 247 

also sometimes incline to eat the after-birth, which should 
be prevented. . - 

For cleansing the Cow, the directions in * The Complete 
Grazier' are, lo put about three quarts of water over the 
fire, and, when warm, stir in as much oatmeal as will make 
a strong gruel; stir it till it boils; then stir in a quart of 
ale, or two of table-beer, and a pound of treacle, and give 
it to the beast when lukewarm. This will also prevent their 
taking coid, ^X 

To regulate the state of the bodjfy^give a mash of branj, 
weted with warm water. Whexe the udder is hard, it 
should be milked three or four times a day ; or the Calf 
should be allowed to suck at pleasure; and care should be 
taken that it sucks all the teats ; for, when any of these are 
sore, the Cow will sometimes prevent their sucking them. 
If the kernel of the udder is harid, the hardness may be re- 
moved by rubing it three or foiir times a day. 

The natural position of the Calf in the uterus is, with 
its forefeet and head foremost; the forefeet lying paralel 
on each side of the head, and the back uppermost. When 
found in any other position, it is unnatural, and the extrac- 
tion of the Call then frequently requires more than ordinary 
skill. It may be safely extracted by fixing a hook, with a 
cord to it, in the under-jaw of the Calf, and gently drawing 
it away. If the flesh of the Cow be torn in the operation, it 
should be carefully sewed up; and, if afterwards swollen^ 
washed with warm milk and water. If the Cow disowns or 
refuses to lick the young Calf, a little salt sprinkled upon 
it will have the desired effect. 

Sometimes, Cows, from abusive treatment, violent exer- 
cise, or that unnatural appetite, called longing^ slink their 
Calves; and in such case they should be carefully treated, 
and kept warm and clean, till they recover. If they exhibit 
previous symptoms of this, it may frequently be prevented^ 
by bleeding them two or three limes. 

It would be a great improvement of our husbandry, if ouu 
Farmers and Graziers, stimulated by the example of those 
in Greatbritain and elsewhere, would enter largely into the 
culture of roots, cabbages, 8cc. for feeding Milch-cows and 
fating cattle; as the business, when well conducted, is very 
profitable. In Norfolk, and some other parts of Great- 
Britain, great quantities of turnips are raised, and mostly 
used for fating. During the Fall, they are put into carts 
and scattered over the stubble of the last-harvested wheat- 
field, and care is taken to scatter ihem over every part of 
the ground successively, in order that each part may have 
equalbenefit from the manure thus bestowed on the land. 

The turnips are raised with an iron instrument fixed to a 
handle ; on the other side of which instrument are edges. 



243 r'ARMER's ASSISTANT. 

set crossways, to cut each root in four pieces, as they are 
raised. After the cattle have ate their allowance, which 
should be no more than they can eat at once, they should 
have some hay given them. Part of the crop of turnips is 
also gatheredj and stored away for Winter-feeding, and 
some are left in the ground for Spring-feeding. 

Other Farmers and Graziers, again, feed iheir fating and 
other cattle in stalls, where cabbages and roots of different 
kind's are fed out to them; and this is believedY,to be the 
most economical way. Some of these articles ofj food are 
much, more efficacious, by being steamboiled. 

For the various articles of food, for feeding and fating, 
5ff Carrot, Parsnip, jPotatoe, Jerusalem Artichoke, 

M ANGLE- WURTZEL, BeET, TuRNIP, CaBBAGE, PUMPtiN, 

Sec. :■ ^ '^ 

In stallfeeding, as well J as in soiling, great attention 
should be paid to the comfort and cleanliness of the cattle. 
Dr Anderson says, they should not only be kept clean and 
well littered, but they should be curried daily in the man- 
ner of Horses, and that they will faten much faster, and 
keep better, for this. 

He says also, that particular attention shquld be paid to 
their having pure water, and such as they are fond of. It 
is obvious, that if such water be not given to cattle, they 
will not drink as much as they want, and will, therefore, re- 
main in. a suffering condition, which is repugnant to gjood 
keeping or easy fating. They should also have water often, 
so as not to be at any time suffering for want of it. 

Dr. Anderson states, that he knew a Man who attained 
great opulence, by attending strictly to these matters, par- 
ticularly to the important point of having a continued supply 
of the purest water for his Milch-cows; nor would he suffer 
the animals to put a foot in it, or even let it be tainted by 
their breath. 

In addition to the various roots^ there used for feeding 
and fating cattle, meal of different kinds is used to advant- 
age, either when mixed with steamed or raw choped roots, 
or with choped hay, or straw. Instead of wasting the straw, 
as is but too common here, it is all saved, and used for lit- 
tering, and for choping up with strawcuting .machines, for 
the purpose of mixing with other food, and thus a great 
saving is made of hay. 

It would also be a great improvement to chop, up our 
cornstalks in the same manner. The kinds of grain which 
might be used here to most advantage for grinding up u^nd 
mixing, as before mentioned, are probably Indian corn, rye, 
and bu'ck wheat. Machines are also used in Greatbritaia lor 
grinding different kinds of grain by hand, with which a Man 
may gr'md a bushel or more in a quarter of an hour. 



FARMER^s ASSISTANT. 24<? 

In addition to the above articles for fating ^and feeding 
are the grains of breweries and disiilenes, and the^refuse 
or wash of starch-factpries, which, as they are all in a' stale 
of acidity, are considered by some to be the better 6r\ that 
account for fating Mr. Toiing- p.irtict^arly recommends, 
that all meal should be in a state of fermentation, before n. 
is fed out. 'The grains of breweries, S&c. may be kept dur- 
ing Summer in vats under ground, being first well irod 
down, and then well covered with a sufetient depth of 
earth. \> ' ' . 2- 

Oilcakes are also of great use i"or fating, and for feeding 
to Cows before calvin^^, for the purpose tif increasint^ their 
milk. It however makes the beef, which is fated solfely 
with it, of a loose flabby texture, which is not so agree- 
able.' -v-, ^ ^ 

Flaxseed brolh, or jelly, is also much recprnmenflcd for 
fating. It is made by puting/about a quart of flaxseed to 
seven of water, and then let stand about forty-eight hoursj ^^ 
after which it is to be boiled gently for two hours, minding 
to stir it frequently, lest it burn. After it is cool: d, it is to 
be mixed with meal, bran, or cut-stViW, and fed out at the *> 
rate pf about two quarts a day to each beast, and it is said 
to make a great savirg in the article of food, ^ '^ 

It is staled, in ^I'/ie Com/ilcte Graziery* that an intelli- 
gent Farmer of this Country, but ol whut part is not men- 
tioned, tried fating v/ith turnips, from O'tober until Februa- 
ry, and that his- cattle rather lost flesh ; but that on his 
substituting hay, choped pptatoes, and Indian meal mixed 
together, they soon fatened. 

Probably a difference in climates may produce different 
results, in regard to roots which are used for fating. But 
as the cattle in question were fed entirely on lurnips, which 
might have produced too great a degree of laxity or scour- 
ing, it is probable, •that hud the turnips constituted only the 
same proportion of feed which the potatoes did, they might ^ 
have proved equally nourishing. ' 

In regard, however, to raising the different articles for 
feeding and fating, those should be cultivated which are 
found most profitable in the tlifferent soil;, and climates of 
this Country; and which, at the same tim^, are found most 
efficacious for fating, or in producing the most, and the 
richest and best-flavored, milk. 

On the experimental farm of the Marchioness of Salisbury 
(Greatbritain) 'parsnips are prefered, as well for feeding as 
for fating; and for tha latter tjse are esteemed almost equal 
to the oilcake. The milk ol^ttie Cows fed with them is 
also very plentiful, rich, and weir tasted. Next to the 
parsnip, is, perhaps, the carror. 



550 FARMERS ASS'^STANT. 

Mr. Fown^^tates, that four Bullocks, six Milch-cow^, and 
twenty Working horses were fed, a few years since, at 
^ Parungton, in Yorkshire, for above five months, with car- 
' rols, \vhich,,^ere 'he produce of three acres'only, and vvitli 
no other fo<x{ Than a little hay, during that tinrie. He adds, 
that the milk was excclent in quality and flavor; and that 
the refdso or waste, with a small quantity of other food, fat- 
ed thirty? Swine. . 

/rhe hay used for feeding and fating is gregH;^Jm proved 

b|! the addition of a little salt Mr, jDar/te, ijf Breedon 

(Greatbritain) says, that by adding ortly ei^^ht pounds ofsa.lt 

to a ton of flooded t«ou]dy hay, he found that his Oxen did 

better on itj than othsrs which were fed on the best^ 

* The Proprietors Qf the Bolingbroke distilery^. near Lon- 

# dotii say the Compilers of ' The Comfilete Grazier * ^^\e. 

erecttd stills for faling about three hundred and fifty head 

of cattle a? a time. '^The stalls are paved with brick, and 

,vl;j great attention is paid to keeping them clean.. The food 

I for fating is the v/ash or grains of the stills, and hay, and, 

occasionally," choped oat or barley-straw. The hay or straw 

4, is given f.v/iee a day, that they may ruminate as usual; 

and they have as raiuch grains as they can eat. In general^ m 

f^ theyjcome readily to this food ; though some are four or 
five' (lays before they beconie fond of it. They are usually 
fated in about sixteen weeks.- The grains are conveyed to 
- the stalls in tightbodied carts, made tor the purpose, and 
turned into vats f^ted for their reception. 

Oihers, again, practise choping the hay and straw fine, 
with the strawcutei^ and mixing it with the grains in the 
vats, and leting the mass lie tvyo or three days, in order to 
give the taste of the hay to the whole. The cattle, thus 
kept, afford gr^at quantities of exceknt manure. Particular 
attefitibn is paid to their littering, in order that,, when done 
eating," they may lie down and repose cotnfojrtably; for com- 
fortal^e at)d quiet repose,' as well as eleaniiness, is deemed 
^essential to their spei^dy fating. 

It would seem, that the saccharine parts of vegetables con- 
tribute very essentially in fating, and, for this reason, mo- 
lasses has been successfully used in the Westindies lor fat^ 
ing the poor old wornout Oxen that are used there. ^ About 
half a pint is given them twice a day, mixed with other 
food, ior this purpose. \ 

A beast v/ill eat more in a cold day, than in a vvarm,>damp 
one; and, therefore, where niesses are dealt out In stall- 
feeding,- regard should be had to thi^ circiimstance, when 
the food is such as may cloy- the cattle, and thus weaken 
their stomachs; for in that case they are lisible to iijll backj 
until the tone. of. the stomach is recovered Regularity in 
the times of "feeding, and that those times be as nearl»? 



i ARMER.^ ASSISTANT. Ml 

«qui-(listant as possibl^^ are also essential points to^^be ob- 
served. '^••/ -v' ,■'% 

T^e quantity of food to be giv«n to fating cattle should 
be in , proportion to the weight of each. An Ox will eat a 
little less thanya^foh of his vy^ight, per day, ot Cirt»bages, and 
about a third of tiia weiglu of turnips, beside a iittle dry 
food io countlsract the- super abundant raoisiure 6f the roots. 
For middles'ztd a-qimals, from a bushel to a bushel and a 
halt of Br§wer's oi^ DisiUei's »^rdins> with some dry food, 
Will be c^ftiumed in a day. About a sixth part of the ani- 
mals weight, with; the addition ^bf some dry food, is, the 
proper allowance, per day, of carrots or potatoes. About a 
pound of powdered' oiicake, and another;, ot hay, lor evrery 
hundred weight of the anioia), is the usttal allowance, per 
day,fof thi^ food; but the quc»nliiy of the .former is to^.be 
gradually increased as the fating progresses, until it is one- 
iialf more than at first. 

It i^ Slated, in the work last raenlioned, that everygoad 
of hay. and luier, given to beasts fating on oilcake, wdt'make 
seven loads of dung; andj that one load of this is more utli- 
cacious, as a manure, than two ot common barn^dung. It is 
also there stated, that Mr. Moody Uttered forty-five Oxen, 
while faring, -with twenty wagonloads of stubble, and that 
the product of dung, when roied and fermented, was six 
'hundred tons. Another trial is also there meniioned, of 
Mr. IVhitCy who lied up tinriy-six Cows and four Horses, 
and while they a,te fifty tons ot hay and had tv/enty actcs of 
straw for liiter, made three, hundred tons of rote n dung, in 
good order for the land. • 

Ift addition to gathering stubblirlor the purpose of iuier- 
ing, our Farmers may supply themselves with ample quan- 
tities of dry leaves every Full ; as rhey may be easily raked 
up and gathered in the woods, for the purposed Mr Living- 
iiiori makes mention of his having^ used this substitute, m 
liis valuable essay on Sheep. 

It may not be amiss to observe, in concluding our re- 
miuks on feeding and fating, that as the larger English' 
breeds require richer pastures for thriving well, than the 
smaller, many of the best English Graziers have lattexiy 
prcfered the best selections ot the latter, as being on the- 
whole most profitable. 

\Vhen a beast is well fated, outwardly, it is indicated by 
Vts^luD^g and comely appearance ; its skin on the lower- 
most ribs. will feel kindly and melloWi as the English Gra- 
ziers suy ; that is, solt and yet ^rm to the touch ; the part 
where the tail is set on, will |eel plump and soil -and the 
?mtch-bonesj as ihey^are calledf'which lie on either sule-ot the 
root of the tail, will feel loose and well qfa^jered. When 
also the cod of the Ox, or the naval of the C&v, feels thkk^ 



252 FARMEI^ ASSISTANT. 

roun<J, and plump, a|yd the hips are WeU covered, thes6 are 
indicaiionS of their 'being well lined with tallow. 

As the Gidzier is usually less skilled in judging of*the 
weight ot live-catlle than the Butcher, Lord Kaims advises 
selling them by weight. Thisinay be donfe in a manner 
very sirpiiar' to ihat Commonly ptactisi d lor weighing loads 
oi nayt r The beast is? to'be suspended!, by being put in a 
box made for ibe purpose, ' 

ytiC weighing ofcatttej he w^ll observes, is a|5g useful in 
order to ascertain wlicthereachbeast fatens in proportion to 
e the value of the loovj bestowed on it ; as it may, in some 
iiibtanceS'ytbebest t'o dispbse ot such as do not. 

,He says, that the lour qdarters are about half of the 

who^|e Weight of tjie beast, when alive, and /when its belly is 

mo*d«Tately full ; the skin is about the eighteenth part; the 

tallow about the twelfth ; the remainder is composed of the 

'^' head, icct, iripe, blood, Sec. whicHoffals never sell by weight, 

1% but in proportion it) the Weight of the beast. With a know- 

'• ledge,' the retire, of these particulars, and of the market- 

** price of the beef, tallow, skin, StD. ihe Farmer or Grazier 

'*tan ascertain whnt his bciists are worth, when alive. 

, By weighing fated Calves, when alive, says the same 
'% Author, and deductin|jj eight pounds from every twenty, 
^, the remainder will prove to be about the weight of the four 

quarters. " • 

The diseases of Nfcat-cattlc are various; and frequently 
new and uncommon diseases occur. A Farmer in this vi- 
cinity (Herkimer) informs us, that he lost eleven head 
during the last Winter *( 18 13) by a new, and till then. un- 
known, disease. When his cattle where attacked with this 
disorder, it was indicated by small protuberances appearing 
found the neck; and, after the beasts died, some of these 

• J were opened, and were found to be full of worms or mag- 

gots. Probably, if these lumps or protuberances had been 
^ opened and cleansed, when they first appeared, the cattle 
rnight have been sav^d. 

• A disorder prevails among Neat-cattle, in the northern 
parts of this State, which is usually termed the hoof ail. It 
has ruined many hundred cattle in this county. It would 

* seeni that the ieet of the cattle first become diseased, and 

then they are frozen during the course of the Winter; after 
which they are of no further value, except for their skins. 

There is probably something in certain soils,:. Which is 
calculated to injure the feet of cattle in the Fall, and thus 
render them more liable to the frost of Winter. In Herki- 
mer cbunty, those cattle which are kept on farms of moist 
rich soil have been most liable to this disorder ; and it is 
believed; that;^^ch as are fed on sandy, sandy loam, or 
gravelly fui'nis', halve scitlum suffered in this way. Probably* 



FARMEl^^s ASSISTANT. 253 

it would be found, %at pursuing the soiling, hubbapdry, 
feeding the, cattle -Vvith plenty ot rich fdod, as has .been be- 
fore directed, and keeping them well littered in warm sta- 
bles, would at once be the most profitable and effectual mfi- 
thod of avoiding this disorcler^ 

In the Spring,, our cattle which have been poorly kept 
through the Winter, a^e subject to a wasting of the piih 
of the horn, v^hich is usually c^Mcd ihG ./ior?idistem/ier. It 
is someuijnes in one horn only, and sometimes in both. 
The inlp^tions of the diseas^ are, coldness of the horn, 
dullness of the eyes, sluggishness, want of appetite, and ii 
disposition to lie down.,, Whep the brain is affected, the 
animal will toss its head^ groan, , and exhibit indications oi 
great pain. ..^ u 4 

: To cure the disease, bore a hole with a small gimblet in 
the lower side, of the horn, about an inch from the head, 
and the corrupted matter in the horh will run out. If this 
does not complete the cure, Mr. Deaiie directs, that the 
hocn have a mixture of rum, honey, myrrh, and aloes 
thrown into it with a syringe; and that this be repeated, 
till the cure be effected. "Probably warm water throw^ 
in wduld ansv^er just as well; as the essential point seems 
to be to cleanse the horri of the corrupted matter. 

Another disease, to which our poorly-kept cattle are sub- 
ject in the Sprmg, is commonly called the tail-sickness, la 
this case, the tail becomes hollow and relaxed. The cure is 
effected, says Mr. Deane, by cuting off a small piece of the 
tail, which will be attended with a small discharge of blood; 
or, when the hollow part is near the end, cut a slit in it one 
or two inches long, and this will effect a cure. 
. The grtfies or choliCy . is mostly troublesome to young 
cattle. When attacked with it, they lie down and rise up 
incessantly, and keep striking, their horns against any ob^ 
ject that presents. It is attended either with costivencfs or 
scoulring. In the former case, they are to he treated with 
purgatives ; and in the latter, with restringents. 

To stop the purgfhgj give them half a pint of olive-oil^ 
sweetened with sugar; or a quart of ale mixed with a few 
drop's of laudpum, and two of three ounces pi oil of sweet- 
almonds. To promote purging, giving them five or six 
drachms of fine Barbadoes aloes, and half a pint of brandy, 
mixed with two quarts of watergruel, in a lukwarm slate. 

These are the directions of ' The Cowfilete Gmzaer;' but 
it is believed, that other purgatives ancl restringents would 
answer^ as well.' In eitl>er case, speedy attention to the 
beast is necessary, in ordiir'to prevent an inflammation of 
the intestines, which must^|>yove fatal. 

The scouring is knOwri in Neat-cattle, by the frequent 
discharge of slimy exciemcnt, loss of apeVue, loss of flesh, 






t 



254. FARMER** ASSISTANT. 

Increasing paleness of the eyes, and ^iieral debility. 
beast should^ be ininie housed art'<l put to dry fdodi 

and this, in the early stages ot the disease, will generally 
effect a cure. 

Should -^it, however, fail, it is directed, in the work last 
mentioned, to boil a pound of rrruiton suet in th\ee quarts of 
milk, till the former is dissolved, and give it lo the beast in 
a lukewarm state; or, in obstinate cases, boil halt a pound 
of gowdered chaik m two quarts of water, till it i^.jrtduced 
to three pints; add tour ounces of hartshorn sha^^gs, one 
of casia, and siir the whold together. When' cdlcl, add a 
pini of limewater and two.^rachms of the linciure ot opium; 
keep the whole in a corkecrbottle, and, after shaking it be- 
fore using,',give one or two hornsfu), two or three times a 
day, as the nature of the case may require. Sameiimes,^ 
hoivever, this disease proves irtcurdbie. ^ ; 

Cattle sometmjes become hoven, ix^ h is termed, owing 
to eating too much, when first mined ir^to rich pastures, to 
swallovving potatoes, or other roots, without suflicient chew- 
ing, and to otli^r causes; The stomach of the animal be- 
comes distended withvvind, and if advent lor , this cannot be 
afforded the be ist must die. 

The usual remedy is ;to open a hole with a sharp-pointed 
knife, with a blade three or lotir inches long, beiwcen "the 
hip and the short ribs, where the swelling rises highest,, 
and insert a small tube in , the orifice.. till the wind ceases to 
be troublesome. The wound will soon heal again. - 

But some of the English Grazicrs'have adopted an im- 
proved, method of obviating this, complaint : Tiiis is by^ 
providing a flexible tube, with a knob at one end; the tube, 
with the knob-end foremost, is run down the throat of the 
beast into its siomach, ^and then the coutintd air escapes 
^rough the tube. The operation is repealed, il necessary.^. 
TThe tube for a large Ok sliould be upwards of six teet 
long'i as that is about the length requisite to reach the hot- ^ 
tom of his stonnach. 

The method recoranriended by Mr. Yo,u7ig, for curing this 
complaint, is, to take three-fourths of a pint of olive-oil, and 
a pint of mehed butter, or hogslar-d, and pour this mixture 
down the throat of the beast; and, if no favorable change 
be produced in a quarter ot an hour, repeat the dose. For", 
Sheep, about a giii should, in like manni,r, be given, and 
the dose repeated, if necessary . Mr. Young asserts this t® 
be a specific, which»will not fail of a cure 'in half an hour. 

To prevent this disorder, cattle should not be lurntd at 
first with empty stomachs into rich pastures; >nor should 
they be allowed to feed on potatoes and some; other roots, 
tviihout their being first ^teain'boiied, or cut in piects, 
\Vh^e a beak, wwevefr happens: io get one of'Che^e i,niis 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 255 

throat, which cannot be forced down, take a smooth pliable 
rod and make a knob on the. end, by winding and lying rags 
round if, and run, this down . its throat into the stondiach, 
which will force all belore it into that receptacle. 

The s/o^^^r* are easily known by the drowsiness, lethar- 
i^y, and staggering gait ot the animal. This disorder is 
sometimes ocicasioned by plethora, or fullness of blood, and 
sometimes it is seated on the bi^aio ; in which case it is in- 
curable, anless by irapaning. In the former case, the rem- 
edy is toMeep the beast housed, and to bleed and purge it 
sufficiently. , ^ 

-♦ Foe wounds of cattle,, sec Wounds. 

The overJfo7uing of the gall^. vi\\\z\\ is sometimes called 
the yellows oi jaundice, is kiiown by the yellow tinge in the 
mouth and eyes; arid sometimes the whole body assumes ai 
yellowish cast. The nose is. dry; the udder of the Cow be- 
comes swollien, ancl yields but little mitk, which also be- 
comes yellow and curdled, on being boiled' ; and sometimes 
the fore-teeth becomejyei'y loose. 

The beast affected with this disorder should be housed, 
and have two or three gentle purn;es ; Uieji give it, twice a 
day, a pint of beer in whiph lias been* infused, for three or 
four da^s, about an ounce to each q^iart of the filings of iron, 
and a snjall quantity ofhardsoap. L^t .the beast be well 
It^pt during the time with warm messes of bran, and other 
nourishing food; to wltich some olivecil, or other purgative 
mtdicine should bc^dded, if the beast be costive. 

For curing t!iis disorder, ^Iv. Dfcme directs to take an 
e[;g and empty it of its whiter retaining its yolk, and fill the 
caviiy with equal quantities of soot, salt, and black-pepper ; 
draw out the tongue of the beast, and witn a smooth stick 
push the egg down its throat. Repeat tlfis two or thte^ 
mornings, and, he says, it will seldom fail oi a cure. 

Sometimes, however, this disorder docs not yield to the 
yower of rnedicine ; but at length turns to the bla^k jaun- 
c^^ce, which is incurable. 

The disorder called redvjatcr^ or vpiding bloody urine, ii 
is believed, has seldom or never prevailed in this Country, 
Its attacks are mostly en yo'ung beasts, which in that case 
are sceii Jeaving the herd, and exhibiiing frequent ineffect- 
ual attempts to void urine. 

The British practice has been to house the beast, and 
give it two doses of glauber-saliH, of a pound each, in two 
succeeding days: Put this, practice is condeir.jied in ' The 
C&infdtte Grazier;^ -andy instead ol puig ttivcs, strong decoc- 
tions of Peruvian or \vliite«ak bark* and alurn are recom- 
mended to be given, in such quantiues, and ixi such timeS;, 
as the violence ^(gi the ciisease jiiay require. 



• 






m 



256 FARMER'S AS^STA;NT. 

The;/m«L^|| is known vbytjie; panting ,or heaving of^hc 
animars flanks, which is accompanied, with trembling and a 
decay of ft^h. Hous^ the beast, and .give it, every six 
hours, during the continuance of the chilly symptoms, a 
quart of warm strong beer^ in which a table-spoonful of 
laudanunpi,, another of ground girtgerj and two of the spirits 
of hartshorn have been, infused. The beast should be fed 
on sweet hay, and weiriittered. Its drink should be warm 
water, with a little nitre' dissolved in it, if there ^be symp- 
toms of fever. As it gains strength, let it out in t«e middle 
of the day, until such time as it has fully recovered. 

The injiamination of the liver ^ is indicated by feyer, diffi- 
cult breathing, a swelling near the shorter ribs, and in 
Cows, a remarkable distension about the womb. Catjlu 
affected with this disorder will never fateh. It is sometimes 
hereditary in certain breeds; in which case, it is incurable. 
In the vv'ork last nientioned, it is recpmmended to house the 
beast, bleed it profusely, and give it the following medicine 
in a tepid state, viz. ^ 

Saltpetre and glaijber-salts, of each twoounces; Venice, 
treacle, mithridate, and white ginger, pulverised, of each 
one ounce; let these*, be boiled in three pints pf water, in 
which may be gradually added, one gill of oil of sweet- 
^Iraonds; the whole being stired together^ This is.sufiiqiicn^ 
lor one dose, which should be repeated the siicceeding day. 
Warm tinesses of bran should be the principal diet of the 
beast, till it has recovered. . 'v 

The ivjlavimation of the lungs is known by a shortness 
of, breath, and a painful cough. The animal looks dull ; /the. 
skin is hot and harsh ; and a copious discharge of thick 
ropy phlegm issues from its rnouth. House the beast, bleed 
it plentifully, and give it a dose composed of the flour of 
sulphur, balsam ofi sulphur, syrup of coltsfoot, apd oil of 
sweet-almonds, of each an ounce, bleniied toget'ner. If the 
above ^atment produce no visible alteration in eighteen 
hours, repeat it. Probably any other purge v/ould ansv/er, 
as well as t,Ke above. Let the beast be kept comfortable, 
^, and have some exercise every day, till it recover. 

The locked Jaw is similar to that in the human frame, is 
caused by similar means, and requires a similar treatn4,^nt. 
If the beast be hardy, opiate frictions, and dashing on oi 
cold water, is recommended. If it, be of slender constitu- 
tion, opiate frictions, and warm fomentations of the part 
alTected, is directed. As the j}east cannot swallow, let 
gruel be poured down its thrpat with a horn, till the di^r^. 
der is removed. , # » :'-\ 

The indications of colds in cattle, to which 'they are most- 
ly liable in the Sgring, are hQllov<(ne,ss of the flanks, rough- 
ness of the coat, heat of the breath, in<l runin^ at thp eyes. 



farmer's assistant. 257 

House the beast, keep it warm, and if it be very feverish, 
bleed it pretty freely, and let its drink be warnn, and have 
some nitre dissolved' in, it. Expose it to the air, at first, iti 
the middle of pleasant days, when recovering. 

Cattle are sometimes poisoned by eating poisonous plants, 
or by bein^ bit with Mad dogs, Sec. In the latter case, if 
the wounded part be cut yway shortly after the bite, and 
then be kept open for some tin)e,_it is, perhaps, the only 
cfTectual remedy. Dr. Crouse*?^ prescription for curing the 
bite of Mad'dogs, as made pUblic^in pursuance of a law of 
this State, is believed by many |0 be tff- ctual, and is cer- 
tainly worth the trial. It is believed, that any medicine 
which is very strongly anti-spasmodic, if s>iven pleuiifuUj', 
and in proper season, will counteract the effects of the bile 
of road animals. ' 

For the bite of Rsiilesnakes and most other vipers, a 
plentiful dose, and repeated when necessary, of olive-oil, 
has been found effectual, in most cases. 

Other diseases of Neat-cattle, it may not be amiss to 
mention, which have, at times, prevailed in particular pla- 
ces. Some years since, a very fatal disease, which princi- 
pally attacked Calves in the F.ill, and' yearlings in May and 
June, and sometimes older cattle, prevailed in Connecticutp 
It Was called the inortifi cation. Those in the best condition 
were most liable to u. 

Its symptoms were, an avertiion to move; a swelling, most 
commonly in the region ot the kidney, but sometimes in 
the shoulder, leg, flmk, or side, &c ; and in ^ short time 
the beast died with Utile pain, but with a very foeteK^ smelL 
Oh e;camrning the swellings, they were found to contain a 
jelly and black blood. The c«use was ascribed to fulness 
of habit, and a too-sudden change from indfi'-rent pastures 
into such.a^ were very rich Bleeding was recommended 
as a preventive. No cure was discovered. ' 

A disease, something similar to the above, prevailed, 
about sixty years since, in the north of England, which was 
commonly called the black - guar ter. Bleeding was found a 
preventive; but in very few instances was a cure effv-cted, 
after the beast was seized with the disorder! This was 
ascribed to too much succulent food, when given to beasts 
of full habit. 

It would seem, generally, that cattle in a plethoric state, 
when overfed with rich food, or when too suddenly surfeited 
with it, are suddenly indisposed, and carried off before re- 
lief can be given. There are, however, epidemics among 
cattle, as well as among Men, the precise causes of which 
may oftentimes be dif^cult to ascertain. Generally speak- 
ing, it is believed, that among the horned race, either plen- 
tiful bleeding, or purging, or both, will be found a prevent-. 



25:& FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

ive, and in n^dst instances a cure, of the maladies which are 
usually mostfatal to them, froni too lull habit. 

When Oxen are long and hardly drove in muddy roads^ 
particularly where the soil is calcareous, they are liable tc^ 
a soreness between their claws. This will mak€ the beast 
lame; and, when discovered, the part should be cleansedj 
and healed with some proper ointment. Sorneiimes, from 
inattention to this, the part becomes horny; in this case, 
the hard parts must be fcuC away, and the wounded flesh- 
cured. 

A general indication of health in Neat-cattle is a moist 
or wet nose, and when this is found dry, it is a certain 
symptom of disease of some kind or other. - 

Cows have some diseases which are peculiar to them; 
such as those attendant on calving, and such as affi;ct the 
udder, Ssc. 

The udder is divided into as many apartments as there 
are |.eats, so that if one or more of these are diseased, this 
does not affect the rest. The milk of one teat may be 
good, and that of another bad. The uddei*s of Cov.s may be 
injured in various way^, and swellings and inflammations 
are the usual consequences. These must be rempved, or 
the beast will be in danger. 

Mr. JDcane, speaking: of hard swellings in the udder, 
which he calls the garget, recommends making a rowel or 
seton in fh< dewlap, and inserting therein a piece of the 
root of mechoacan, as large as a nutmeg, with a string fast» 
ened to it, so that it may be drawn out when the cure is 
effected; and this, he says, will tause a revulsion of the 
humor in the udder into the orifice in the dewlap, where it 
will be discharged. When the cure is effected, the piece 
of root is to be drawn out by tire string. Probably a com- 
mon rowel, placed in the breast or dewlap, w^d answer 
the sanie purpose. 

Where hard tumors have formed, the Compilers of ' The 
Comfileie Grazier^ reconnmend, to take of common hem- 
lock (conium maculatum) dwarf or roundleaved mallow 
(malva rotundifolia) and common millilot (trifolium milli- 
lotus) oi each a handful, and boil them in water; with this 
wash the tumor, after u has opened; the ivater to be as 
warm as the beast can bear it; and, after thus cleansing ths 
part, cover it with a plaister of basilicon ointment. 

The following is also recommended in the lastnientioned 
work, in obstinate cases of ulcerated udders: Take gum- 
ammoniac, gum galbanum, castilesoap, and extract of hem- 
lock, of each one ounce; form them into eight bolusses, and 
give one every morning' and evening. 

It is observed in the same work, that internal remedies 
are always necessary where the udder and teats are cok.^ 



farmer's assistant. 259 

Viderably infl.imed, and for this purpose another interna! 
medicine is mentioned, viz. Four ounces ot nitre mixed 
with a pound of comnrion salt.; give two table-spoonfuls of 
this, powdered, in a gallpn of thin watergrucl, every three 
hours. 

Where the inflammations are less violent, and exhibit no 
symptom of increasing rapidly, it may answer to annoint 
the udder frequently, during the d .y, wiih iresh butter; or 
with a salv©; made of an ouqce of castilesoap, dissolved in 
a pint of sweet milk, over a gentle fire ; or with an oint- 
ment made with the juice ot the.ieaves of the t^iorn, mixed 
with hogslard ; or the tumor may be annointed with a little 
mixture of camphor and blue ointment 5 and let about half 
a drachm of calomt 1 be given, in a hori'iful of. warm beer, 
if the malady increase. 

Wher^ tile teats are only sore, tfiey may be washed with 
soapsuds, and rubed vvith an ointment ipjde of whitelead 
and goosegreasej or fresh butter would, perhaps, do as 

well. , .'v,^>:;,; > . :, ,■■ .■- ' ' 

The proper pdsition fftr the Calf to lie in the catf-bed 
has already been mentioned; where, thefetore, it is not pre- 
sented in this position, at the time tor iis birth, and by rea» 
sen of this »he Cow cannot deliver her burden, it becomes 
-^necessary, if possible, to place it properly. Where this 
cannot be done, the method of extracting it by a hook fixed 
in the under jaw, as belore mentioned, may be frequently 
successfully practised. , j 

Sometimes the hind parts of the Calf are foremost ; 2^ 
in this case it is best to extract it in that position, by pro- 
per torce used for the purpose. Whatever assistance, how- 
ever, may be requisite in these cases, should be given with 
care and judgment, minding to hurt the Cow as little as 
possible. |. * 

Anottiie'r impediment to calving, as noticed in the last- 
mentioned work, is owing to a part of the natural passage 
becoming ot so horny or firm a texture, that it will not 
yield or distend. When on due examination this is found 
to be the case, insert a sharp- pointed penknite, with the 
forefinger to the b'ack of it, to guide it correctly, and with 
this carefuljy cut the horny circle through, which will im- 
mediately give the animal the requisite relief, if proper 
assistance be also given. ^ > 

In this case, as in others wht re the passage is wounded, 
or torn, it should be bathed with a pint of camphorated 
. spirit of wine, injected with a syringe ; the beast should be 
boused and kept moderately warm, and vvell and dryly 
Tittered, and tie fed with wholesome nourishing food, and 
with 4rink a little warmed. 



26# FARMERS ASSISTANT. 

The falling; down of the calf-btd trtquently happens after 
a laborklub Bitirj ; ihough souic Cowt> iire naturally disposed 
to this dibortler. VVhtre this> is apprehendtd, ii is dircciedj 
in the laslmeniioned work, that ihe Cow should be cai efullyt 
watched, and the piucenia, or clecUih-g, removed without 
effusion of blood At^er which the O^)'..idtor may gently 
repliice thfc calfb. d, idkmg care not to withdraw his hand 
till .he tormt-r brgms tt) ie,ei warnfl, 

Thf folh>wiD^ draft, jnay then be given: Of bay berries^ 
pulv::;r!zi d gciiiiaiirvjo, and corriaiidcrsetds, each an ounce; 
oi aniseed Siicl juinpefbvrr^ies, each two- ounces; together 
with haif a poui d ol tr^aclef and the whole put into three 
pinr.e ot strong beer. Alter this, it is advisable lo lead- the 
>beast gcntly»down a hili, if one be near, which will assiif 
much in placing the calf-bed in its proper place, and rendei* 
the application ot stays to the womb unnecessary. 

Where the caltVbed, however, comt.s dov/n, and no im- 
33iediate aid can be hud,>i()e parts exposed should be laid 
on, and kept covered with, a linen cioih; and, when replac- 
«d, bathed with a mixture of nev/-miik and spirits ; after, 
which, the above treatment may be pursued. 

Some Cows have a peculiar shape of the hinder parts, 
which tends to produce this malady; and,, in such case, it 
is perhaps difficult to prevent it, unless it can be done lyy 
keephig their hinder parts higher than usual, while confined 
to fheir stalls, about \h(: period of gestation. 

The fiuerfitral f^-oer is caused by, taking cold, while 
ealving. Cows ihus affected should have housing and good 
treatment, as has been direcied in other cases, and tl>e head 
yhoukl be placed highest, in order to assist the natural dis'^ 
charges. In other respects, they should be treated as in 
cases of violent colds, except that no blood should be taken, 
unless, perhaps, in violent cases, and then only at the coni- 
iTiencemeni of the disorder. 

Close attention should be paid to Cows, as well as to 
the females of other kinds of cattle, about their periods of 
gestation. They often then ^tand in need of some skilful 
aids, whch, it rendered in due season, may, save their lives 5 
and wiiich, if not thus afforded, may be of essential loss to 
the' Owner. 

Calves are also liable to some diseases, and, in some 
Countries, to such as do not prevail in others. In this, it is 
believed, they are subj.^ct to bu* fcv/. One, however, which 
frtquently attacks them, is looseness or scouring. It is 
fujmetiraes caused by their having the milk of the Dam too 
soon; souietimes, by too frtqueni changes of the milk 
Tivhich is given. 

Ofte*uaethod of cure is to stint ih^ amma] of its food, and 
^ive U onge or twice, -whije fasting, a hard boiled egg, 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. M 

mashed fine and well mixed with its^^ilk. Another directs, 
that powdered chalk, mixed with wheat-flour, and made 
into balls with gin (brandy would seem to be belter) pG 
given the animal, as a safe medicine. \%; 

Calves are also liable to colds; in which case they should 
have a treatment similar to older Neat-cattle. 

We have read a theoretical essay, of the late Dr. Bush^ 
en the dibea|s?.s of cattle, wViien with his usual ability His 
theory is thi#: That similar catises produce similar diseases 
in the Human, and in the brute, creation ; and t|iat the most 
proper cure tor the disease, in either case, is pretty much 
the same. Hei also contends, that the diseases of each are, 
6ften simuhaneous; produced by the same generally-pre- 
vailing causes. 

We are aware, that the most eminent of the Descend- 
ants of Aesculapius have laid the foundation of their fame 
on some new theory, often more or less incorrect; but we 
are induced to concede to this^ as being fundamentally true, 
and worthy of due consideration by ail who attempt the 
healing 'art, upon cattle of every description. 

We shall merely add, that in Norfolk county, in England, 
which is famous for its' numbers of Neat-caitle, the fiolled 
breed h }j^ almost universal use. The Cows of this breed 
a|e extel^t milkers ; and their inability to be mischivious, 
frbm their want of horns, would seem to entitle them to a 
preference. 

Mr. P. Coofier^ of Newjersey, however, deprives his 
horned cattie of their horns, when he thinks proper, by 
taking the "halves, when about a month old, and the horns 
have risen above the skin, and cuiing off the knobs close 
with a chisel; then, with a sharp gouge, paring them off 
clean to tlie bone, searing the wounds thus made, and filling 
them with jhogslard, which completes the operation- 
Id the foregoing observations, which are rather miscella- 
neous in point of form, no attention has been paid to the 
various terms which many English Farmers and Graziers 
apply to cattle of different kinds, ages, and conduions, fur- 
ther than such terms are usual in this Country. We have 
plain English enough for every purpose ot this kind ; and 
there is no need of Farmers having a .vocabulary for cattle, 
consisting of barbarous v/ords, which none but themselves 
would be iikeiy to understand. 

NETTLE (Urtica,) It is said, that this plant is more 
productive in fibre, than hemp, on a given quantity of 
ground. That the texture of its fibre is finer.and stronger, 
tiian that of hemp, has been long known to the early l^iet- 
tlers on the Mohawk fiver; as this plant greatly abounded 
in the rich, mucky, new lands in that quarte*r, before they 



252 FARMER^s ASSISTANT. 

were cleared. As nwicjj^ as thirty years ago, we have scera 
cloth made from the nettle, which apjJeared to be as soft 
as that made of fix. '^ 

The plant seems to grow most naturally in moist mellow 
loam, which contains a large proportion of vegetable earth. 
It may be raised from the s^d, or the root, as it is a hardy 
perennial. 

Mr. Greene says the seed should be sowed in the Spring, 
and that the roots should be planted in the Falfii; tha^, it the 
iSbre is wanted for the finest fabrics, the plant should be cut 
while in fulft flower; but, 'if only for common use. it will 
yield more by standing till fully ripe; that, after being cra- 
dled, which is the most proper way to cut it, the stalks' 
should lie on the ground, in order that their stinging quali- 
ty be thus removed; that it is roted in the same manner as 
hemp, but requires a longer time for this purpose; and that 
It is not affected by the inclemency of the weather. 

It is believed that this plant may be cultivated to great 
advantage, particularly in soils where it grows in its natural 
state. " * * 

It should, however, be observed, that the culture of it has 
been patented by Mr. Wliitloiv;' but, how far th6 knowledge 
that has long existed, in regard to its valbable qualiiiesj 
may interfere with his supposed right to monopotise its 
culture, we pretend not to say. - - ""' 

That superior intelligence, however, which may h^ve en- 
abled him to perceive the value of the plant, when properly 
cultivated, and to excite public attention in its favor, enti- 
tles him to particular consideration, and the thanks of his 
Country. . * 

NEW HORSE-HOEING HUSBANDRY. Ih the year 
1731, Mr. Tull, an ingenious Farmer of Greatbrftain, pub- 
lished a book under this title ; and, afterwards, further sup- 
plementary essays on the same subject; the object of which 
was, to introduce a new system of husbandry, particularly 
in the culture of wheat. His method is this: ' 

The ground is ploughed into ridges of about five, six, or 
seven feet wide, and then smoothed with the harrow; then 
the seed is sown in straight lines by a drill in small furrows, 
about two inches deep; two of these furrows being placed 
together, at the distance of about nine inchesj with an in- 
terval between these and the next two of about two feet ; 
so that a horse-hoe, or a horse-plough, can be run between 
them. As the seeds are droped by the drill-plough, they 
are covered by little harrows, which are fastened to the 
plough, and follow after it. The horse-hoe has alreadf 
been mentioned. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 263 

After the plants of wheat have got to a proper size in the 
Ball, the horse-hoe, or plough, is run close to the plants, on 
each side of the double rows, and the tunows are turned 
Ironr) thera j and thus, Mr Tutl says, the growing grain 
should be lefi during Winter ; it being, by this process, laid 
so dry, that it will be in no djariger oi being thrown out olf 
ground by the Winter frost. "^ 

Early in the Spring, Jlje earth is to be turned to 'he 
rows; then ^ May, tronOj^hem ; and in June to them .^gain. 
Some weeds, which wilPrise between the double rows and 
round the stalks, must be, taken put by hand. % '^ 

This culture, Mr* Tull says, is equally well applied to 
barley and some other kinds of grain. For barley, it has 
been found to answer very well here; but for wheat^ in 
particular, it will not answer. It naakes this grain grow so 
rank and thrifty, and continue so much beyond the usual 
time in the green state' that it generally becomes blasted or 
mildewed. Protjably the same fate would, in some measure, 
attend this kind of culture,, with jregard to rye, if a culture 
so expensive could, in this Country, be afforded to thd't 
grain. 

Mr. 7^w//'s leading principle is, that f^quent ploughings 
have the same effect on lands as manuring'; and this, m 
general, is believed to be correct, though not equally so in 
'all soils ; that by this constant ploughing, or horse-hoeing, 
the lands will be sufficiently and constantly manured ; that 
soils not very rich can, in this way, be made to produce 
very large crops; and, what is sometimes important, they 
can thus be made to produce the same crops every year ; 
as the ground is ploughed up again, as soon as the grown 
crop has been harvested. 

Although the husbandry of Mr. Tull will probably never 
come in^b general use in Greaibriiain,'^whete, from the 
coolness of the Summers it will always answer best; yet, 
the drill'plough, and the method recommended by him, of 
ploughing among plants, are each founded in an accurate 
knowledge of good husbandry ; and the latter will ever be 
found best in the guhiyation of many plants; such as beans, 
Indian corn, carrots, cabbages, potatoes. Sec. ; and, no doubt, 
barley, and probably some other kinds of grain, may in this 
manner be successtully cultivated. 

Mr. Dcane says he lias cultivated barley in this way, and 
never had less than forty bushels to the acre. 

NURSERY. #would seem to be the better plan, t'(> 
make a nursery on such ground as is but illy suited to the 
growth of the trees to be raised ; for, by afterwards placing 
them in a soil that is natural to them, they, will grow fiaore 



264 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

thriftily, than trees raised in a nursury where the soli j^ 
suitable to their growth.^. 

See Orchard, tor a case mentioned by Mr. Peters; and 
also, Plumtree, tor another mentioned by Mr, Livingston^ 
where this point is more fully illustrated. 

Let the ground be ploughed very, deeply, early .in the 
Fall, and be well mellowed ; then lay the seeds, or stones, 
along in straight rows, and let them be laid plentifully, in 
order that enough may come up.j^The next yfar, they are 
to be thined, so as to stand at jploper distances, and the 
ground is Xo be kept hoedt^ and clear of weeds and grass. 
After they have had one Summer's growth, they may be 
cut off near the ground, for grafting. 
See Grafting 

Inoculation, may also, at this growth, be successfully per- 
formed on them. 

See Inoculation. 

They should atterwards be kept clear, of Weeds and grass, 
by hoeing among the rii, until they are transplanted. 

Where snows fall deep, they art apt to bend down the 
voung trees, and make them crooked. The best remedy 
ior this is, to drive down stakes, proportionate to the height 
of the young trees, and tie them to these in such manner, 
that the bark will not be injured by the string, nor by rubing 
against ^the stakes. This is to be done after grafting them. 

Some sow the seeds, or stones, on a small spot, and after- 
v/ards plant them out in the nursery. This may >e best 
for stone-fruit ; but, lor appletrees, sowing the seeds in the 
pumace is rhe easiest mtthod, and answers as well as any ; 
and for other seeds, or for acorns, if oaks are to be raised 
in a nursery, the above method will answer very well. 

Many trees are propagated from the. slips, or cuiings, 
such as the Lombardy-poplar, mulberry, and othej:;s. 
For raising appletrees, m this way, see Slips. 

NUTRIMENT OF FOOD. The parts of tood, whence 
nourishment is derived, consist of gelatine, albamen, and 
the saccharine matter. ^ 

In a course of Lectures, delivered by Mr. Davy, before 
the Board of Agriculture, in England, he pointed out, from 
his own analysis, the quantity of nutritive matter contained 
in various seeds, roots, and grasses, uaed as food for Man 
or beast. 

From this, it appears, that the best wheat contains ninety- 
five p^rts in one hundred of nutritive matter ; good barley, 
winety-two; rye, seventy-nine; oats, seventy-four; peas, and 
beans, fifiy-seven ; potatoes, twenty five; beets, fourteen; 
carrots, nine; turnips, from four to six; clover, four; flo- 
rin, six J and other grasses, from two to five. 



FARMER^s ASSISTANt. 265 

Wheat weighs sixty pounds to the bushel, andi turnip* 
about forty. Thus, it would seeni, that as much nourish* 
ment is to be derived from on^^nshel of wheat, as from 
about tiyemy-seven of turnips. -This, however, is nbt tlie 
case. ' / 

What is called the stinnulous produced by distention must 
be taken into the account, in formintc a jproper estimate of 
the effects' p^duced, in support^ life, by any kind of food; 
and it is on vjpis account that, ^rJ>aps, fourteen bushels of 
turnips, particu4arly when boiled^ would sustain life as longj 
or faten as much, as one bushel of wheat. ^ 



0= 

^AK fQuercusi.J. Mr. Green^ in his' < Catalogue of plants 
indigenoiis >to the State ot Ncwyork,' enumerates fifteen 
different kinds/of oak, ta ivit; the common white, the swamp, 
the yello^v-chesnut, the scarlet, the Spanish downy-red, the 
long-stalked^ the scrub or barren, the l^rge-fruited, the 
rock-chesnvjty the cock, the mossy-cup, the various-leaved, 
the black-jack, the post-white, and the pinoak. 

With some of the abovK kinds we are not acquaint|ed» 
The black-jack abounds in the middle States. 4 

There is, also the liveoak of the Southern States, which is 
uncommonly hard, wheh dried, very durable, and esteemed 
the best for shipbuilding. , - 

The swampoak is very firm, to^iigh, and (durable; and, 
whea cui|ivated, it should be in;s|u<Jh grounds' as < those in 
which it haturally grows. 

The whiteoak, which grows in moist uplands, is of rapid 
growth) firm in texture as any of the northern oaks, and is 
mostly cultivated. 

The liveoak should be cultivated where it naturally 
grows. 

See Forest, for an approved method of cultivating the 
©ak. ' '•• , 

It may alfso be planted in nurseries, and then transplant- 
ed, at plea^re. 7 ■' V 

Mr. Fomythy in.speaking of those which are raised in 
nurseries, says, it is a generally- received opinion, that when 
an oak looses^its tap-root, in transplahting, it never produces 
another; butlhis he found to be a mistcike. He transplant- 
ed a bed of oak-plants into a freish bed, cuting off tlie^tap- 
roots near the small fibres shooting from them. The r.cco:.^ 

34, 



Sa6i FARMEFt»s ASSISTANT^ 

year afterwar^Sj i ht hfdded down one-half of the plants, arid 
the oiher^alt he lett lo N.i>ui& 

Far his method of heading down, see Fruit trees. 

During the fiist seasoH, it)ose which were iieaded dawgt 
riiade shoots six feet in length, and covered the lops of the 
©Id ste^s, leaving only a slight cicatrix; and produced new 
tap-roots upwards of two feet long The Ovhers, whicli 
w^re not. headed down, did not grow to one-fotsrth of this 
length. He further sa^, that when the iprmer werjs 
eighteen f<^:ti high, the tatter were only ^ve. ' Tl is case is 
cited by hfti), ais a strikipg ini^ance of the sup«^riority of 
his method of heading ddrvfi over the Common mtthod of 
tnanaging trees. 

His rnethod of curing or restoring old, hollow^ and dis= 
eased trees, which are partly dead, is also gener dly appli- 
cable to the oak 

For the inerhod pf doing this, see also Fruit-trees. 

The Farmer, who finds his stock of .g^ood oc»k umber 
gi*bwing more scarce, should turn hi^ attention to the 
Imec ns of replenishing his farm with this valuable timber. 
When planted on fiKk heights and declivities, he may find 
the '"growth of oaks ornamental to his fartr), as well as pro- 
fitable, by raising its value ; and it may afford him much 
pleasure, in his morfe advanced years, to observe their in- 
creased dimensions, while in his mind he rolls back the 
wheels of time to that period when the oaks were bfit 
acorns i« his hand. 

|;^ Tht^ bat k of the whiteoak is best for taning. The inner 
birk of it, when reduced to a powder, and administered in 
the manner of the 'Peruvian bark, answers nearly th^ same 
purpose; but the doses jjiust be largef. 

The juice of the galls of the shruboak is excelent, for 
making the best ink, and is also a component payl in black 
dyes. They are formed by an insect's depositing Its eggs in 
the tender rind oi the twigs of the tree j and, through the 
wound thus made, Ihis black juice oozes, and forms a 
tuipor, sometimes as large as a walnut, in the heart ^; 
which the young insect is to be founQ. ' ^ 

The acorns for planting, for raising the oak, should be 
gathered as soon as they fall fn Autumn, and k^pt in moist 
sand during the Winter, in a place where they will be fres 
from frost; and those only which have sprouted should be 
planted the next Spring, The sprouts should not be suflfep- 
€(| to dry, before ilie acorns are pat in the ground. 
'^'' A strong moist soil is pequisiie for raising the common 
whiteoak, to perfection. Grounds for raising the best oaks, 
of any kin^, shotild always be those where they grow most 
tihrifiilly, in a state of naturej^^ if 'Miphijan be always asce»- 
Uined. 



■4 
FARMER*s ASSISTANT. 



OATS (Avena.) The clear profits lo be obtained, from 
this crop, y<in ficver be, very gre^|v^or, ulthough fitiy and 
-sometimes SIX y bushels m..y be faised on an acic; sull the 
value ot ihfc cropj dccorditig to the usu-tl puce obtdUitd fi^ 
•ats, is oi DO great amouni. /^heir principdi recommenda- 
tion is, that thty are an txoeiemj^oo toi"* Horses, p<uiicu- 
l^ly m iravehn^, being oi a lodging nature ; while most 
cither grams lire Mndih^/ 

Oats require a soil, and a climate, sufficiently moist. 
Dry, grdvcily, or saody soils are the most unfii tor this 
gram; and particularly where^^ drought i^ apt tp prevail, 
during vi.e growing ot the crop. ^ 

In most ciimaies, it is best to sdvv tfats as soon as the 
ground can be properly prepared ui the Sprung; bui, where 
di'oughi is not to b^ expected, they may be sown at any 
time that wiii enable the crop to, ripen before the close. of 
the season. 

The cr*op should be harvested r-ather green, as this mukes 
the straw much better for todder, without afiy iiijury to the 
grain. Gypsuni^is a suiiubie manure tor the< crop. It is 
usual to sow twb busbeU ot st:ed to the acre'; but we nave 
seen very gpod^ cfops ruisvd, where only halt this allowance 
«t seed wa^^ sown. Probably, about a bUfehel and a halt i^ 
sufficient. "" ;♦ ' '/ ' 

Uats are usually considered as beirrg rather a scourger of 
the ground; but we believe this is a mistake. We have 
seen a piece ot land, which was intervale, l\owever, sowed 
eighteen years successively with this grain, without ma^ 
nurc, and wuliout any sensible dimirmiion of tne crop. 

At ihe same lime, when wheat is sown immediately aftel^ 
Qats, the latter crop wiii be lessct»ed more i\\ product, ihaij 
by any other crop which could have preceded It. 

As it is usually thought necessary tor every Farmer to 
raise sonrie oats i 'and as the crop can never be very^ profita- 
ble, ynless attended with but little labor; perhaps the* best 
plaifitiiay frequently be found, to select some suitable 
groiind', and keep it yearly sowa with this crpp; particularly 
•where gypsum can be profitably applied as a manure. 

Let the gypsum be sown on the grcrund after the crop i«, 
harrowed in. As soon as^ it is harve^teclj this matiure will 
produce a growth of white clover, ^hich will be of consider-!' 
a^e value fdr Fall-feed)n^. 

Early in the next^ Spring, turn the ground carefully over, 
harrow another crop, and sow gypsum as belorc ; and so 
©n, year alter year. Let the ground be ploughed hut one 
way; let the 4ands be ot. uniform width, and the gathering 
ad parting tteows alifcrnate, as directed under article 
Ploughing; % 



$e$ FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

"The quantity of gypsum to be applied/ yearly, should be 
such as will produce the, largest crops which can gro^^ 
without lodging; and t^f^e will ]^rot^ably average about 
liliy or sixty bushels to the acre. 

This pae- hod, where the ground is suitable for the put- 
pose, ivill, as we believe, yield the utmost profit that Ccin be 
i;ealized from the ^^ulture,^] bats. 

It may be advisable to peep the seed, before soVmg, ia 
$ome fertilizing liquor; such as a *soluaon or saltpetre, oi^. 
old urine kept for the purpose, or Ue of wood-ashes, or all 
these united; and then, dried with a sprinkling of gypsum. 

See also, Barley, for another successful method of 
steeping ^hatgicu;, before sowing, which, no doubt, may be 
found equally btntficial for oais.' 

A change of seed 'Shouid also be atiended to; f©r this 
grairt, like naost others, degenerates by long sowuig in the 
^^ same place. ^ >-' 

^ In whatever v/ay oats are cultivated, 'they recjuire the 
ground to be well stired up and mellowed, and to be in 
good condition.^ li is a raistakcn notion, though entertained 
• by many, th^ slight culture will answer for this crop, or 
that this grain can be cultivated^ to any advantage, in poor 
lands, without manure. ... 

Several kinds oi roots m^y bfe made very good substi- 
tutes for oats, for feeding Horses, at home particularly; 
Buch as carrots, potatoes, when steamboiled, turnips, Jeru- 
salem artichoke, £^c. Pumpkins are also expelent for this 
purpose. 

It is also believed that clbver hay, when steamboiled, 
would nearly of itself keep Horses in good condition, dur- 
ing the Wi titer season. 

See Steamboileu, Pumpkin, and the articles treating of 
the roots jusl mentioned. 

OLIVE (Olea.) This tree is famous for the production 
of oil. It thrives well in Italy and the southern pa|-ts of 
Prance, and, it is believed, it would grow well in*s6>*te*^ of 
the Southern States. The Winters here are too severe for 
it. We have, however, a plant which is said to be an ex- 
celent substitute. 

See ^IJNFLOWER. 

It ha&"^|jE;n found, in France, that immersing the olive- 
fruit in vinegar, before pressing otit the oil, yiiHl improve 
the quality, and add a tenth more to, the* quantity. 

ONION (Allium.) This root requires a mellow, dry 
soil, and the richer the better. The soil ^ may be a rich 
sand, sandy-loam, dry-loam, or gravelly- loam, ot either of 
these earths, of common quality, when strongly marfured, 



Nf. 



farmer;s assistant. 259 

will answer. The'ricl^'black earths, and mucky grp^nds, oC 
the more northerly and westcrlv -,^rts of this State, ^are 
good for this root. ,;. h^'^J 

We have seen it successfuliy*^cultivated in lightt bljick, 
swampy grounds, when laid sufficiently dry by small op'^n 
ditches, about three rods apart. *v * 

In the parts of this State which yjre have just mentioned, 
the onion affords very produiMhi crops; and a great pro^ 
portion of the soil may be fited-'lor its culture. From lour 
to six hundred buslieis of this ropt may be raised to il.c 
acre. 

The ground selected tor this culture should be perfectly 
clear of stones; and, if it contain sieeds of weeds, these 
should be first eradicated by an effectual Sumnidr4allowing. 
The ploughings, however, for preparmg the land, in the 
first instance, need not be deeper than perhaps about three 
inches. , 'ii^,^ - - m 

• If the ground be suitably mellow, any further p^oughings,^ 
for succeeding crops, will be unnecessary; all that will bef^ 
found requisite will be, to remellow the ground as deeply, 
and effectually, as it can be done by a heavy irontoothed 
harrow, .having the teej:h well pointed, and turning forward, 
so as to run about tw(**inches deep.' f 

But, where the soil js not ne^iurally of the mello,w kind, it 
will probably b©f found best to give the ground one even 
shallow ploughi«ig, and then to make it perfectly fine with 
the Irarrovv, as before mentioned. ^ " 

Whatever manure is applied, should be very finely roted, 
clear of the seeds of weeds, and should be well mixed with 
the surface of the soil, by the harrowings. 

After the surface has been finely pulverised with the 
harrow, the grqund should be rolled, ^nd then it will be fit 
for the reception of the seed. The sowing should be as 
early as the ground can be completely prepared. 

The common method of fomniiting the seeds ,lo the 
earth is pretty well understood ; bii^ this is a tedious opera- 
tion. Ti>e seeds should 'be drilled in, in rows about teii or 
twelve inches apart, by a small hand-driUplough, madefor 
the, purpose, as described under Drill-husbandry. 

This machine may "be made to drill in two rows at once, 
which would enable one Hand to go over, perhaps, two or 
^three acres in a day. The seeds should be drilled in pretty 
lhickly*,^for fear they, may not all vegetate, and covered 
about half an inch deep. If the growing plants are, founfl ta 
stand too thick, they must be thined by hand, when the^first 
weeding cnmmcnces. 

This is the most laborious operation in the whole, process 
0! raising this root, as well as sonae others; but^iQi'e we 



270 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

propose anotVicj laborsaving implemlfent, in the shape of 
a small haad-weedingplQUgh, which is described under 
Plough, This is to be ]^t^hcd along by hand, runmg lur- 
row5 on each side oi the, ■iiO^tv^, as near as may be to if nd ad- 
visable; turning^ the, furrows first from the rows, and then 
bapk tOrthenn, m onleB^ the tnore completely to throw all 
the roofs of the young g;romh ot weeds out of the looting 
they may have got m the ^K 

Every part of the in^ervaT between the rows should, in 
this manner, be cut wi(.h this plough ; afier which it would 
probably be found requisite to use a small narrow iron- 
toothed rake, for the purpose of cOmplfiiely separating the 
roots of the, weeds from the soilr. -^ W;ien this has been per- 
formed, the* cleansing of the rows of the weeds growing 
among them, which the plough could not touch, and also 
the thlhing. ot the rows, must be performed^ by hand. 

When the weeds 4^egin to rise again, this operation must 
'be repeated, and a^ain, if it be- necessary, as no weeds 
^ Should be suffered to gVow among the crop. 

jOi<^ grounds never can be completely cleared of weeds, as 
sgnifc kinds seem to grow spontaneously ; but, where none 
a% suffered to gqr to jJecd, the trouble of extirpating such 
as do rise will not be very difficult. I 

In raising this root, som^ plant them in holes, about ten 
inches apart, so as to form rows' each ^ay, puting about 
eight.seeds in each hole. ' ..? 

This, wher,e the cultivation is all performed by handtatjorj 
is the easiest, both in seeding the ground, and afiei;v«r»rds 
in weeding it, as the weedinghoe can be run eaCh way be- 
tween the bunches or hills; but the product will be found 
the greatest, where the crop is raised iii rows, whether 
drilled in, as above directed, pr planted by hartxl. 

By the use of the drill, and weeding plough, as above 
described, in raising the crop, it is believed that or^e-half 
of the labor usually bestowed on the culiure of this root 
would„6e saved ; and that thereby the Farmer could proba- 
bly aflford his onions for, about thirty cenis a bushel; a suni, 
which Is not more than a third of tiiev price they usually 
comw\and in our markets. 

The culture of this root, upon sonGfephat of an extensive 
scale, and agrepably to the above directiojs, woald, no 
doubt, be found very profitable in same situations, where a 
ready maiket eould be had for the crpp^ and whereMie soil 
was suitable for itS; cultivation. '-i; 

W^en the stalks hitve become dead and dry, the onions 
Will have ceased to grow, and then they should be pulled, 
and laid on the ground some ctays, to dpy and harden, be* 
tore thc^y%re carried in. 



FARMER^ ASSISTANT. 271 

Those ^hich have thick necks and the bulbous part small, 
and are commonly called «ca//zows,, may as well, be left^ in 
the ground during the VVmter, a^thigy will contii.u^^teen 
till that time: They, will sianl^lhe frost; and the be^t 
Spring will grow in their places t6 be good onions ; or thejr 
may then be taken up and set m^ bed made tor that pur- 
pose. At air events, they are^^jood for nothings wuhout a 
second year*s growth. .*3|f v 

There is a kind of onion whicli, instead of bearing seied, 
bears bunches of swiall pnions on its top, and these being 
preserved, and set out the n^t year, grow to be iarge, and 
their tops again bear the sm^l ones. Probably these are 
best calculated for more southerly clii«atesj tho\igh they 
grow very well in this. 

In the Fall, after the onions,;have been dried, and the tops 
cut off, they are to be carried in and spread over a floor 5 
and, at the ^commencement of cold weather,; put into^ 
casks, and set'ina^ place where they will not freeze. A^ 
little freezing, however, lyill . npt essentially injure them. ^% 
The place where they are kept, "should not, at all e vents j^ 
be too warm and moist, as this will cause them to rot. It, 
they be kept where they are somewhat frczen, they should 
not be disturbed in theif frozen state j but the better way is, 
not to suffer them to be froz ,n, but to keep them in a tem- 
perature a little above the fj-eeziog poiiit 

Those which are shiped from Newengland, for mat'ket, 
are usually tied up in wisps .of fciraw, and if they be hung 
up in. this way they will, perhaps, keep longer than any 
other. ' if they incline to sprout, sear the roots with a hot 
iron, wbicb will &top their^'growth. 

To obtain seed ffom the onions, plant them in the Spring 
in beds, -ab^out nine inches apart. Tdke the largest and 
soundest for tnispjarpose, arid keep them cleaVof weeds 
while growing. When they have come^to a head, tie them - 
loosely to st^Jces drove ,dowa for tliat purpose ; otherwis^e 
they will fall to the ground^ and then the seeds will not 
come to perfection. . -v 

A. bed thus prepared* and cultivated, avill last many years; 
and the seeds which iV produces. wiJl be beiiel' as the bed 
grows older For the purpose. However, of preserving the 
bed, it must be protected from the severity of the Winterj 
by covering the onions over .with e^rth, to the depth of 
about three inches, i^x mf^r^ if requisite rand, in the Spring, 
thty are to be uncove^d agaip. If an^of them happen to 
die, their pl§ce is to be supplied by seting others m their 
stead. 5 

It is saijd^Jhat soot, and ashes are, each, very good nia« 
nures for onions. Apply these when the bulb be^s t« 
forai. -^ ' 



m FARMER^s ASSISTAN% 

Ml'. Deanei^?iy?, he tried common sea-salt upon them, 
without efffeet; but pet,li%ps the manner, or time, ot the ap- 
plic^Upn, or the quantitj^iflpplied, was improper. 

We are unacquainted vWith the particular effects which 
gypsum would have ujJop this crop j but, most probably, 
one evil 'teffect it wouW havelwould be the spontaneous pro- 
ductiori of white-clover., vr 

It is most probable that|well-roted and fermented com- 
posts, formed of such materials as ar« most suitable to the 
soil, will' always be found tlie best manure for this root; 
and, in order to ensure th6 greatest crops, the manure 
should be plentifully applied. 

Onions ^fe ndt v&ii exhausting crop; and they may be 
consrantly raised on the ^ame ground. 

It should be added, that SQme are in the practice of beat- 
ing down the tops, after the robts have attained considerable 
s^ size, tor the purpdse of making the latter g]i;;ow the faster; 
but the practice's undoubtedly injuripus, as we have seen 
confirmed by experiment. >, 

In all the States, more southerly than that of Newyork, 
yM has commonly been tounjd necessary to give onions two 
*^years' growth, in order: to rear them to a suitable size. 

We perceive, however, -that a tnethod has lately been 
adopted which <^nables the Ciiliivator to rear a crop every 
year^ on the same ground. This is, to sow the crop about 
the 1 0th of September, and let it stand over Winter, and 
then it will come to maturity the ne:^t seasoh, in time suffi- 
cient to take it off, and sow the ground again. ' 

This has been successfully practised by- Mr. Peters, and 
by Mr. P-hili/iSyOi Peiinsylvania. - \^^ 

ORCHAKD. The most suitable soil, for almost every 
kind of tree growrt in the orchard,f^ is that' whidh* is warm, 
dry, and fertile. Even light sandy lands are better for the 
purplfc^e, than stiff clays. It Is mbst advisablfe^to make use 
of hilly or uneven grounds, if the ?oil be suitable, and let 
those , which are level be reserved for the plough. ^ 

The fiist step toward making a vaU^able orchard , is, to 
prepare a hihrsery of young trees, of the best kinds of fruit, 
and such as are most suitable for the uses to which they 
are to be applied. 

For an orchard of peach and apricot-trees, see Peach- 
TRF.E, and Apricot. " ,y 

Trees df this description should jiever be i^anied with 
those Of a lafger gro^vth. T.he appletree and the peartree 
may grow verywell; together ; and an orchard of these, as 
being the most durable, a^d susceptible of being applied to 
more valuable uses, is, generally speaking, entitled to the 
first consideration. ^ 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 275 

The. juice of the peach and apricot may be distilcd into a 
brandy of pleasant flivor ; but all arrfent spirits are great 
destroyers of the Human Race. Uquors of the vinous kind 
are much less hurtful to the constituUon ; but far from be- 
ing innocent, if taken to excess. ** 

In the Letters of Esfireilla^ mention is made of a famous 
peartree, that grew at a place called Teignion, in E- -^l^nd; 
that from this tree many others '^f the same variety were 
raised, by engrafting; and that the perry made from these 
trees had frequently been sold, in London, Hoi Cham^ 
fiaigne 

See further. Perry. 

Mr Coofier, of Ncwjersey, has made a liquor from the 
juice of the apple, with other intjredients, which, by Con- 
noiseurs in wine, passed for it, and was considered oi exctl- 
ent quality. 

See Wine. , ^ 

Liquors ot such quality are not, however, to be made 
from the most common sorts of either pears or apples. 
The choicest kinds of fruit must be selected lor such pur- 
poses. In searching for fruit-trees, whence scions are tq-' 
be taken for grafting, in order to raise the most valuable 
fruit-trees, regard should be had to the four following par- 
ticulars: First, that the trees bear the best of fruit for 
making either cider or perry; second, that they ripen at 
different times; third, that they bear pleinifiilly ; and, 
fourth, that they be-jr every year. 

Tree^ possessing all these qualities are not every where 
to be foQnd ; but they should be sought for ; and, whenever 
found, they alone should be used foT^obt^ining a supply of 
scions, whence to take limbs to make trees after the Chi- 
nese method, whi<:h we sh-11 presenily dcicribe. 

Trees may be found which bear excelent fruit for nwking 
cider, or perry, and which, when grown to good size^, will 
each yield, yearly, from twenty to thirty bushth, or mof-e ; 
which is perhaps five times'-^he quaniuy that the common 
sort of such trees usually bear. This is surely a sufficit^nt 
inducement to search for the most valuable fruu-irtes, 
when planting an orchard, instead of planting in ihe com- 
inon way. ' 

For the different methods of grafting, ^ee that article. 

The Chinese method of raising any particular kind of 
appletree is as follows: Take a limb, of suitatile siz?^, of 
thetree selected, andtake off the bark all rOOnd it, to the 
width of an inch; round this place plaister a bulb of 1 >ani, 
say, of the diameter of eight or ten inches, und bind it 
round with old cloths, or tow, and strings to keep it to its 
place; immediately above this place a vessel, fiile^" with 
wateV, v/ith suc^ a leak in its bouoni as will constantly 



2» FARMER^s ASSIST ANf. 

afford such droping of the waier as will keep the bulb suf- 
iciently wet; and as the water leaks out of the vessel let it 
be again replenished^ 

In a given time, roots will start from the limb, above the 
place where the bark is taTten off, and extend into the bulbj 
and, when they have grown sufficiently, saw off the limb, 
below the roots, and plant it where it is to grow. Let It 
be fastened, with a cord^^'to a stake drove slanthig into the 
ground, to keep the new tree steady, until such time as its 
roots have extended sufficiently for that purpose; minding, 
at the same time, to keep the stake from rubing against 
the bark. 

This process is to be commenced at a time suitable for 
having the young tree planted at the proper time in the 
Fall. 

This plan will, no doubt, answer equally well for pear* 

m tret s. The limbs^ selected for the purpose, should be taken 

from young trees, as soon as their character for fruit and 

# bearing is known ; if it be true that either limbs, cutings, 

Sec. will live no longer than their parent stock. 

Mr See Cutings. 

^ It is advisable to have several different kinds of cider- 
apples, and pears for making perry, in the orchard, and 
some which ripen sooner than others, in order that more 
time be allowed for making these liquors; but it is believed 
best, not to mix different sorts of either together, in making 
the cider or perry. 

See Cider, and Perry. 

It is observed, in the Letters of Es/ireilla, that, in some of 
the cider-counties in^England, the appletrees are not graft- 
ed at present; but, for rearing young trees, the largest 
seeds which are found in the south side of the largest 
apples, as they hang on the trees, and these of the best 
selections for fruit, are only used for planting ; and that 
from such seeds appletrees are grown, which produce 
either the same kind of fruit, fts that whence the seeds were 
taken, or other kinds nearly or quite as good. : , 

Probably it may be found best to plant the seeds,, before 
drying, after they are taken from the apples; and for the 
same reasons that the stones of peaches are directed to be 
planted in that v^ay A few experiments would readily 
ascertain the truth of these matters. 

There is another way of obtaining a much better orchard, 
than the common method of planting trees, without grafting, 
is calculated to aff;)rd : This is, to set out the trees very 
close, say, not n^ore than eight feet apart, and without any 
regard to rows. As soon as they begin to bear, the charac- 
ter and value of each tree is readily to be known ; and as 
sopn thereafter as may be necessary, let tj»e most wortliless 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 2^f 

trees be taken away, and repeat this operation, as the re- 
maining ones increase in size, so as |o give the growing 
ones at all times sufficient room. ,, 

In this way, not more than one 4K&b out of six will be 
left standing, when the orchard has acquired a large 
growth; and thus a chance is afforded, of selecting ihe 
best tree out of every six first planted ; while, at the same 
time, the orchard in its infancy affords a much larger pro- 
duct of apples; and the trees, as "they are taken away, are 
ol some value for iuel. , M 

Some may object to this plan, that the trees womd stand 
too thick* at first, tor ploughing i ihtit they would not stand 
in rows J and that, when the poorest trees were taken away, 
those left stapding woula be at mpre unequal distances, 
than when at fiiat planted; as two or more good trees 
mighv often be found together, and sometimes too many 
poor ones. 

The latter objection is the only one of consequence; and 
it docs not possess much wei^t. Two good trees, where 
found next each oilier, miy be kit standing; as thB growtli 
of their limbs will so far become adapted to their situation^ 
as to seek room to grow where most room is to be tound;v.\ 
and, where too many poor trees are louud together, they 
may be all taken down, and have their places suppheu with 
grafted trees, selected for the purpose, or with limbs con- 
verted into trees, alter the Chihese method just men- 
tioned. ' 

Whe^t^^ier the trees stand in rows, or otherwise, is a mat= 
ter of litf consequence, turtner than as it regards ploughing 
among thj;m; and we never should , advise to plough an 
orchard, more than two or three years'atter planting : For, 
if continued longer, the shade ot the trees, and the exten- 
sion of their roots, will impede the growth of the crops • 
while, at the same time, the roots, and the bark are apt to 
fee irijured by the operation of ploughing. 

All that is really necessEiry, to make a young orchard 
grow thriitiiy, is to plant it'ip a good suitable soli, and to 
keep the ground clear of grass and weeds, for some little 
distance round the roots. Orchards which are never plough- 
ed, endure the longest. 

Let them be kept as pastures for Calves, for Swine; and 
Sheep may be safely admited, even among yourfg trees, by 
taking the precaution to give their bodits a coat ot lime 
over the bark, wiih a brush; or a coat ot Mr. Forsyth's, 
compd'sitton ot tresh cowdung, old urine, and soapsuds; 
either of which will, as is believed, be found a sufficient 
security against the depredations of Sheep on the bark of 
'the uees, or of insects on the leaves. >^ 



2/6 FARMER'3 ASSISTANT. 

It is perhaps almost unnecessary to observe, that larger 
cattle, which can reach up to the limbs of the trees, should 
never be buffi;r( d to ^o i«to the orchard. 

Wc- will su£^y:est aputhcr method or planting an orchard, 
W^hich we be bejievc wouid^be advantageous. Take young 
trees of the bebt selected iruit, obtamed by gratiing, or 
otherwise, and set them in row», at the distance ot ten feet 
each way. 

After they have borne about six years, their increased 
dimensiohs then retiuiting more room, let every other tree, 
in each row, be cui dowi. ; so as that those leit standing 
will be in the quincux order, at the distance of about four- 
teen feet. ^ 

After these have stood about ten years more, let every 
other one be again taken away ; and those remaining will 
theti stand in their first order, at the distances of twenty 
feet. 

When they again require more room, repeat the opera- 
tion i and this again brings those left inio the quincux, at 
the distance of about twenty-eight feet, which is sufficiently 
,far apart for large trees. 

H ^ The advaniai.^es of this mode of culture are, that, as 
soon as trets begin to bear, the same extent of ground 
will yield nearly as great a quantity of fruit, as when the 
trees are full grown, but fewer in number; the tiees cut 
aWay will be of considerable value for fuel ;. and less ground 
is, in this way, sufficient for more constantly affording any 
given quantity of fruit. rj^ 

Tiie principal disadvantage of the plan is, that about one 
hundred and twenty trees morejto the acre will, in the first 
instance, be requiredfWhich, if the Farmer raises and grafts 
his own trees, instead of purchasing them, will be about 
twenty dollars to the acre, of additional expense ; a trifle, 
when compared with the advantages before mentioned. 

Mr. Coxe^ of Newjersey, planted eight orchards, in dif- 
ferent ways; and he found ttiat which was planted in the 
manner following, to flourish much beyond all the rest: 
Indeed, he says, it is the most thrifty orchard to be seen in 
the part of the country where he resides. 

The holes for the trees were dug about four feet' wide,' 
and two spUs of the spade in depth ; the trees were ttien 
set in, without any manure under the roots; the earth dug 
out of the holes w^s alone made use of to fill them up 
again ; aiid then he laid over this, and round the tr^ees, a 
compost made of river-mud, wood a^hes, and a small por- 
tion of linje, at the rate of about a common wagon-ioad for 
mL fcvery ten trees. 

^ The three years following, alter planting, he cultivated 

ihe ground with Indian Corn, 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 277 

Mr: Peters makes mention of young appletrees taken 
from a clay soil, and transplanted in one mote suitable ; and 
that they became more thritty than^oiher appleirtes, plant- 
ed at the same time, and in the sattie ground, but which 
had been taken from a nursery where ih« soil was suitable 
for the growth of this tree. . \ r j 

He also planted some appletrees at the depth ol two and 
a half feet ; but they did no^ beconie thrifty, until roots had 
started out nearer the surface. .^ \ 

In order to prevent late frost from destroying^Jb^ Iruit, 
when appletrees are in blossom, or perhaps evetf' alter the 
young apple has formed; let some gypsum be strewed 
round under the trees, pretty early in the Spring. Common 
salt, it is said, will answer the same purpose;. 

A rope of straw, with one end tied round the body ot the 
tree, and the othe^end immersed m a tub of water placed 
underneath, will have a similar effect. 

The effect of gypsum, in particular, when applied Tor 
this purpose, is, that it attracts the moisture m the air, 
from the blossoms to the earth ; as it is well known that 
lands, when lately manured with gypsu^, have much hea- 
vier dews on them than any others. Salt is said to have 
much the same effect, in attracting moisture. ^ 

It seems to be well ascertained, that raising red-clover in 
apple-orchards, for the purpose of mowing particularly, 
proves injurious to theMrees, and more so to the iruit, 
by causing it to fall off permaturely ; but that, if gypsum be 
applr^d to the growing clover, it will prove less injurious to 
the trees and fruii ; and that, if this manure be applied, and 
the clover fed off, neither the trees nor the fruit will be 
essentially injured. - ^^ 

Mr. Fhitiiisy of Pennsylvania, finds Hogs of great use m 
an orchard of plumbtrees. They cause Iiis trees to bear 
plentifully; while, withouT these animals, the trees bear 
very little. The reason of this is, that the Swine, by eating 
up all the fruit which falls from the trees, destroy the 
young brood of curculiones deposited in the fruity which is 
the cause of its early falling off. 
See Insects. 
Mr. Garrigus, of that State,' says he has two orchards of 
the same kinds of fruit; the one more exposed to the east 
winds than the other ; and that he has known that, 'most 
exposed, to bear no- fruit, during a season when that wind 
^ prevailed, while the other bore considerably. 

We h&ve seen orchards as productive of fruit as usual, 
U^hich were never ploughed, but kept constantly for mowing- 
grounds ; but such were on rich soils, though not inclining 
to clay. The Jiorin-grass would probably be found much 
the best, for combining tl>e meadow ajid the orchard to- 



278 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

gether, as that grass is said to grow as well in the shade 
as else wh- re, arid to grow well in almost all soils. 
See Grasses 

As soon as I tie young trees begin to bear, care should be 
taken that they are not overloaded with fruit ; tor, in such 
case, perhaps even grafted fruit, when taken from stocks 
which were yearly bearers, may become alternaie. We 
have heard the contrary of this ajigerted. 
See Appletree. 

But of its truth we have no experimental knowledge; 
although we deem it a matter very important to be as- 
certamed. Bui, until this shall be the case, we should 
rather advise to ease the young tree of part of its load, it it 
appear too heavily laden the first and second years, as soon 
as It can be ascertained what proportion is to remain, alter 
that part which visually dies has fallen off. 

This is more particularly to be attended to, in regard to 
appletrees; as peartrees are but seldom alternate in their 

bearing. 

In regard to pruning, we shall merely observe, that it 
may be overdone. A profuse loping away large limbs is 
seldom necessary. 

It is more essential, that young trees be properly trimed 
at first; and at this time the hmbs which stand too thickly, 
cr cross each other, or extend in wrong directions, togeilier 
with those which are dead, or UMthrifty, may be readily 
takehaway; and the wounds thusnnade, being small, will 
soon close over. jtf 

But, where large limbs are cut away, the wounds will 
produce a rot in the tree, unless the wood be carefully 
shielded from the weather, by Mr. /^orsy^^'s composition, 
®r something similar. 

OVERFLOWING of the GALL. See Neat-cattle. 



PAINTING OF BUILDINGS, &c. For painting the 
roofs of buildings, Mr Patterson, ot Newjersey, has, some 
years since, given the following directions, which have been 
highly approved, as the best composition known for pre- 
serving the roofs of houses; as it is found, that it hardens 
by time, and is an effectual preventive against the roof tak- 
ing fire, from the sparks of the chimney. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 279 



' Take three parts of air-slacked lime, two of wood-ashes^ 
and one of fine sand ; sift these through a fine sieve, and 
add as much linseed oil as will bring it to a consistence for 
working with a Painter's brush. Great care must be taken 
to mix it perfectly * 

We believe grinding it as a^paint would be an improve- 
ment Two coats are necessary ; the first rather thin ; ihe 
second as thick as can beyK)nveniently worked. 

Painting of wooden buuaings. of ev«ry kind, is not only 
ornamental, but the Owner is well repaid for ih$'$ extra ex- 
pense, by the greater durability which the pairit gives to 
them. The wooden fences also, whieh are intended to b& 
ornamental, round, and near buildings, should never be 
destitute of a good coat of paint. 

PARSNIP (Pastinaca ) The cuUi^a(ion proper for 
parsnips, is very similar to that of carrots, and the same 
kind of soil and manures are suitable for each. They, how- 
ever, require the soil to be very deeply dug: Eighteen 
inches is not too deep. They are full as good tor feeding 
and fating cattle as carrots, and are about equally productive. 
They might be cultivated to advantage for feeding in the 
Spring, when the stock of carrots has become exhausted 5 
as the best way to keep them over Winter is, to let them 
remain in the ground during that season. 

When dug in the F.tll, tor family u*e, the best way to 
keep them through the Winter is, to bury them in moist 
sand In Spring, those left in the ground, and wanted for 
that use, should be taken up before J hey begin to sprout. 

Probably the Farmer would find the culture of parsnips 
nearly as profitable as that of carrots, particularly for Spring- 
feeding. They are planted in beds and sown or drilled in 
rows across the beds, having the rows about ten inches 
apart. The plants in the rows should, at the last hoein^j 
be thined to the distance of about four inches. Those which 
are pulled out in thining will then be good for Swine. 

Freezing does not injure this root ; and, therefore, those 
which are kept in Winter, for family-use, had better be 
kept in rather a frozen state than otherwise ; because, if 
kept too warm, they will sprout, and this spoils theih for 
eating. 

PASTURE. The subdivisibns of land, that is kept for 
H the sole purpose of pasturmg, should depend as well upon 
its fertility, as upon the number of diff'ercnt kinds of cattle 
that are to be fed on it. Fifty acres of land, that would 
only feed three Cows during the season, would not pay the 
expense of subdividing. On the contrary, if the Farmer has 



280 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

but three Cows, and has three acres of the best t^aUure- 
land, he ought to divide this into at least two parts ; so that 
the one can be growing while the other is feeding. 

Again, if he keep twenty Cows, and has twenty acres of 
the best pasture, he will find his account in having it di- 
vided into four parts, and pasturing each enclosure three 
or four days, allernately. In this way, pasture-lands will 
keep at least one-fourth more o^attle, and will keep them 
much better, than if the whole pasture were in one field. 

Not;, only a change of pasture is beneficial, but a change 
of different kinds of cattle in the same pastures should be 
attended to. Thus, let the Milch cows take the first crop- 
ing of each field, in rotation ; then the Horses and Oxen, 
and the Sheep next: In this way, the last feeder will eat 
much grass that has been rejected by the former. 

Wet miry spots4n pastures should be drained off, either 
by, open or hollciw drains; for, by this mean, the grass in 
such spots will be doubled in quantity, and much improved 
in quality. Bushes should be cut out and destroyed; this- 
tles ahd other noxious weeds should be mowed down before 
they go to seed, and every mean taken to eradicate them. 

It is never advisable to pasiure lands too closely, particu- 
larly in the Fall, as this only tends to diminish the quantity 
the next year. In this respect, it is the same v/iih pastures 
as with meadows; the closer they are croped the less will 
be the next year's supply. ' \, - < 

\Vhere the pasture has yielded much feed, there y^ill, of 
course, be much dung dropcd : To beat it to pieces, .and 
scaler it over the field, will tejjd constantly to recruit it. 

Sheep require no water in their pastures; it is also the 
beiter opinion, that Calves should have non<^ ; and, generally 
speaking, that Horses should haji^e little or none, except 
when they are v^^orkcd. The eff.ict of this treatment is, that 
they^ become habituated to lie by in the heat of rhe day, and 
feed at night, when the dew is on the grass, which renders 
it more nourishing. 

Cows, however, ought to have water; and, where their 
pastures afford none, the better way is to sijik a well at that 
spot where the pasture-lots corner together; and then \viih 
a little machinery, which will be bui a trifle ol exptns;p, 
sufficient of water may usually be raised everv day by the 
winds, for the; purpose of filling the troughs as often as 
lliey are emptied. The nriethods of doing this are so simple 
and easy, that they are hardly necessary to be described. ^ 
Siic further, Wind-machinery. 

In place of welh, however, artificial punds are recom- 
mended by some.' 
See Ponds. 



FARMER^ ASSISTANT. 281 

In pastures which are on the sides of hills, water may be 
easily obtained in another way ; that is, by diging horizon- 
tally into the hill till you come to it,,, and then carrying it 
out in a pipe, or conductor, made for the purpose. Another 
method is, to dig a well on a steep part of the hill, and 
place a syphon in it, with so smidl a pipe that it will not let 
off the water fast enough to exhaust it in the well. 

Another method of makil% a well, as recommended by 
M. CadU de Vaux, is to bore a hole into the earth,., with an 
augur or borer made for the purpose, until sufficient of 
good water is found. If that which is, first found is not 
good, bore deeper, until you come to better; and bore suf- 
ficiently deep to afford a full supply.. 

Let the hole be about eight or nine inches in diameter. 
As the augur gets filled with earth it is taken up, emptied, 
and let down again. After the hole is made', a wooden tube 
is inserted in it, and the water is raised by pumping. 

This is a very cheap and safe method of making wells, 
and might be advantageously performed where ^the earth is 
free of stones and rocks. ' ,^ "' ^ 

Lastly, as a matter of ornament and profit, let your pasture- 
lands be planted with some useful trees; and probably, for 
this purpose, the locust will be found the best- 
See Locust. 

The sugar- maple may also be found very advantageous, 
where the soil is suitable to it, and where a yearly supply 
of maple-sugar is desired, which wilt be found an article of 
no small profit. 
See Maple. 

For the best grasses, for pastures, see Grasses. 

PASTURE OF PLANTSv Every plant requires a given 
quantity ot earth to nourish it, into which its roots extend 
for that purpose; and the quantity thus required is called 
the requisite fiasture of the plant. Some require more 
earth, and some less. Some require a greater superficial 
extent with less depth; while others require a greater depth 
with less superficial extent. 

For instance, a plant of Indian corn requires a superficial 
extent of, say, three feet in circumference, and a depth of 
six inches ; while a root of the beet, carrot, or parsnip kind, 
requires a superficial extent of, perhaps, only twelve inches 
in circumference, but a depth of, say, fifteen inches. A 
^nt of flax, on the contrary, ^ill not require nioie than 
six inches in circumference, and five inches in depth. 

It will probably be found, that the greater depth is given 
to all plants, the less circumference they will require ; that 
the roots will, in that case, shoot further downwards; and, 
therefore, the deeper you plough, the thicker you may sow. 

3<3 



282 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

This is a matter of nice calculation, and well worth the 
attention of the ingenious Farnier. 

In order to i'lucidalie this, the proper method is, to try 
various plants in beds of the same soil, culture, and dimen- 
sions, bui dug of different depths, and the plants set at 
different distances, and then the results will lead to the 
truih. ,^ 

Thus, for instance^ make fo\# beds oficarrots, which shall 
be dug equally weir eight inches deep; Jet the roots in the 
first bed^ stand at the distance of four inches from each 
other ; those of the second, at the distance of six ; those of 
the third, at the distance of eight; and those of the fourth, 
at th^ distance of twelve inches; and then let it be ascer- 
tained which bed has the greatest weight of earrots. 

In the mean time,,have four other beds dug twelve inches 
deep; and four^more dug eighteen inches deep;%nd plant 
prie of each of'^thenii at the respective distances above men- 
tioned, and ascertain what is the result of each. The same 
* experiments cin bfc tried with equal exactness on most 
ottyer plants, and the results equally well ascertained. 

PEA (Pysum.) There are a variety of peas; some of 
■which ait: more, and others less, valuable for cultivation. 
The best for garden-culture are the small early, and the 
marrowfat pea; the fbr'tner for early use, and the latter for 
an after and more abundant supply. 

The method of cultivating each, in the garden-way, is 
too generally known to need any particular description. 
They may be sown in the field, in the broadcast-way, for 
family-use, which is much the easiest, as the trouble of 
raising fhem in the garden is very considerable. 
' The culture of the common field-pea is considerably at- 
tended to in this State, among the German Farmers, and 
ysually precedes the crop of wheat; bemg considered a good 
preparative for that crop, as the ground is left mellow, and 
but little exhausted by the crop of peas. 

They yield from sixteen to forty bushels an acre. The 
haulm is also of some considerable value for fodder. The 
allowance of seed is two bushels to the acre ; though, per- 
haps, a greater allowance is advisable, as the thicker they 
are sown the less liable they are to tall flat to the ground, 
which in some measure prevents the filling of the pods. 

They are to be sown during the first decrease of the 
moon, alter the ground Cc«||be prepared in the Spring ; fc^, 
if not sown while this planet is performing that part of its 
revolution, the crop will ripen unevenly; some stalks will 
be green, while others are dead ripe. The ground should 
be well mellowed, before sowing. Gypsum is excelent for 
this crop, where the ground is suitable for that manure. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 283 

Soaking the seed in some fertilizing liquor, before sowing, 
such as a solution of saltpetre, old urint, kept tor the pur- 
pose, lie of wood-ashes, or perhaps ail uiiiitd, wouldf.no 
douDt, be ot service to the crop. II the soil be inclining to. 
clay, lei the seed be dried with linne ; but with gypsum, 
if It bu suitable to the ground. 

The cyop> to make it sufficient^ly profitable, should be of 
luxuriant growth; and as s^ch will cover the ground more 
completely, it wiil, on that account, be in better condition 
for the succtedint? crop of wheat. 

In regard lo harvesang, the practice we* have ^le^eh is, to 
let the crop stand till it is dead ripe. If it were haiveisted 
"Willie the haulm was parily green, u svould be much better 
for todderi t^jd we believe the grain would not be thtreby 
essentially injured; though, ptrhap§, a little^ more trouble 
would tigi requisite in drying the hadttn. 

It is cut L-y me Gviman Farmers with a siihe-and cradle; 
Tjut we believe 'a common mowuig-sithe is just as good for 
the purpose. In cuting, u is at the sanui, timc^gulhered 
into small bunches; in which sii,ttai!ion it 1^ till sufficiently 
dried, and is then carted in. 

* The threshing is not difficult.^ It is done with thte fl^i!, 
with Horses, or with the roller described under Thjie^h- 
ING. i'ne machines tor threshing, commonly in use, it is 
believed, would'Tiot so well ahswei^for this crop. 

Pe.»s are subject to the depr'edations of a small black bug, 
that eats into tnem. It does not, however, hinder ihein 
from growing; but, if not destroyed, the next crop will be 
intested with these insects. '^ 

To kill ihem, let the peas designed for seed be put, a ^ 
few seconds, into some, or a mixture, of the liquors before 
mentioned, made hot ; and then dried in the manuer before 
directed, and sowed immediately. 

Tiiose designed for cooking may also be cleared of these 
bugs, by ihe use ol hot water; as they will drop ^Ut of their 
holes, atVer they are dead, and may then be easily sifted out. 

Peas are best adapted to smooth lands; as it is somewhat 
difficuh to cut the crop in stoney grounds. With the aid 
of gypsum, they will grow very well on light sandy lands; 
and, generally speakiiig, they will gro# to advantage on 
almost every soil that is sufficiently dry, and rich, for a 
good crop of wheat If the ground be tod rich, however, 
they will run loo much to haulm, and yield the less. 
The crops we have seen raised, which were, principally 
in the lands on the Mohawk Hver, appeared toT^e lessened 
in product, for want of a change of seed. ' 

Whether the marrowfat pea would grow tpo tall, and be 
inclined to fall down too soon, to be advantageous for field- 
culture, is a point on which we have no information. They 



« 



284 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

might probably be tound most suitable to poorer soils, 
where their growth would not be too high ; and in such 
case their product would probably be much greater, than 
that of the common field pea- 

Would they not be found well adapted for extensive cul- 
ture in the fine mellow, but much-exhausted, lands which 
lie contiguous to the Atlantic, in the Middle and Soutnern 
Stales? If the soil there, in its present impoverished state, 
should prove too weak, it can be easily raised to the requi- 
site diegtee of fertility, by the application of gypsum. But, 
indeed, those lands want nothing but a plentiful application 
of this manure, with the use of red-xlover, to fit them for 
almost every production. . 

Peas are superior to Indian corn, for fating Swine, or 
other cattle. Tor this purpose, they should be steamboiied. 
See Steamboiler? ^^ 

They are much used, where raised, for feeding Horses j^ 
but, lor this purpose, a mixture of oats with them is believ- 
ed to be preferable. 

When hulled, they are excelent for soup, for puding, 8cc. 
Some of the common fuld-peas, however, do not boil soft 
so readily as others. The marrowfat peas, when dried be- 
fore they are fully ripy!, are best for such purposes, as 
there is po necessity for hulling them. ^ 

Peas exhaust the soil ^but_ little, and are considered as 
good to precede a crop of wheat, as any other crop what- 
ever. If the profits of the crop can never be very great, so 
neither ave the expenses incured in its cultivation. 

PEACHTREE (Jmygdalua ) Peaches ^re of two kinds; 
the clearsione and the clingstone; but there are good vari- 
eties of each. The Same sorts c^n only be raised by graft- 
ing, or inoculation : This may be on apricots, or on plum- 
trees,, and will make the grafted trees longer lived. 

The trees should have a warm, dry, fertile soil : A sandy 
loain is best. If the spot where they are planted be shelter- 
ed from the northerly winds, it will be the better. 

To raise the young trees, take stones that are fully ripe, 
and plant them in October. They will come up and grow 
jto a good size in the course of the Summer. The^ are to 
be kept clear of weeds, while in the nursery. At a year's 
growth, they may be grafted, or innoculated, and, after two 
Summer's growth, they may then be transplanted. This 
may be dqij^e when the leaves have fallen in Autumn, or in^ 
the SpringT ^ 

Take plants with one strong clean stem, or, if they have 
two, cut one away, however fair. Let the downward root 
be cut off, in order that the tree derive its nourishment 
Irom eanh nigh the surface, which will make the fruit less 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 285 

•^ ■ 
crude, and finer tasted. Be careful not to plant the trees 
too deep; lor this is injuri/^s to all truit. Let the pruning 
of the new-planted trees ^e omited, till they have taken 
root. 

Mr. Forsyth gives some particular directions for training, 
pruning, &c. the trees, to make them good bearers; all of 
which m«ty be wtU enough for the climate of England, but 
does not seem ntc^ssary to be observed here. Wherethe 
climate is suitable for peaches, in thip Country ;^ that is, 
where the frost of the Winter does.not kill them; ttiey gen- 
erally bear so much that the trees are frequently broken 
with the fruit, if part ot it be not taken off. 

Mr. Forsyth also gives a list of the best peaches raised 
in Engiuud, ;^iuch ripen at the different months of the 
season tor peaches; but, no doubt, this Country is capable 
ot affording varieties equal, and perhaps superior, if sought 
After. 

* In making a proper selection ot trees, from which to graft, 
or inoculate, a due regurd should be had to three essentials. 

1. To obtain the gmtts, or biids, from trees bearing the 
finest truit. ^ 

2. That this fruit* hould''^^ ripen at different times, froni 
the earliest to the latest of the season for peaches. 

3. Tnat thej;ratts, or bu,ds, be taken from trees which 
are plentitul bearers; but not such as bear so plentifully as 
to be broken by their truit. 

But, perhaps, the too- plentiful beaHng of trees is a quali- 
ty noi properly descendible to those which are raised from 
thciii, by graltiiig, or otherwise. It would be well to ascer- 
tain tnib point, by experiment. 

It IS said, by some, that it the stones of peaches be buried 
immediately, wiihbut drying, they will produce trees bear- 
ing the same kinds of peaches, as those whence the stones 
were taken. This is well worthy of particular trial. 

Betore closing this article, we shall present to our Read° 
ers the method practised by Mr. JBayley, of Accomac 
county, Virginia, for cultivating this tree, as communicated 
by Mr. Geddes, 

* Mr. Bay ley has now (1814) sixty- three thousand trees, 
and a large disiileiy which is employed only one month in 
a year. 

* His peach-orchards are planted in rows from north to 
south, twenty feet apart, and in each row a tree is placed at 

* every ten feet. He has tri^d a tree at every ilStvelve feet, 
and prefers ten feet. The stem, from the ground to the 
limbs, is only two feet long, the trees being less exposed to 
injury by the winds; and, in Mr. Bayley^s opinion, the 
branches grow more upright, and he is enabled to plough 
closer to the trees than if the stems were longer. 



286 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

« He has tried Mr Coulter's niethod of having no stems. 
He puts stones in the ground, ar^ time between November 
and April, but prefers Decemb^' ; and cuts out dead and 
broken limbsj- ^without any other pruning. 

' Ploughing and harrowing the orchards is commenced 
when the%prini^-frost is over; and about this Mr. Barley 
is very particular He ploughed, one year, a part in Murch; 
after which came finest, and every pe^jjh droped off the 
trees irj,the part ploughed ; while those ploughed, after the 
frost, ypWed a fine crop. At present, he ploughs in the 
latter part of April; again in May; harrows in June; and 
again in July. . - *,"* "* • 

' The plough is a very light one, drawn by one Horse or 
Mule, only scarifying the surface, to keep down the grass 
and weeds, and not cjating the roots of the peachtrees, 
which run very shallow.' r 

^ His harrow is nothing but three ^^ 

hoes, nine inches wide, each, placed Jjljil 

under* ^a triangular harrow frai^e; ^ uT 

« their situation and shape ^ thus, ' /j||||\ /^l 

malcing'jL/together a breadth of twenty ■|P "^ 

seven inches.* ^ •* ^ 

* Another piece of labor has to be performed in this 
warm climate, which serves ^//^ewz'se to jj^eep down the 
weeds and grass under the trees. An insect, resembling 
greatly in appearance the botfly that teases our Horses, 
pierces the, bark of the trees, a little below the surface of 
the earth, and there deposits, in June and July, its eggs; 
out of which are hatched a red worm, haif an inch long, and 
of the thickness pi a coarse knitingneedle. These worms 
injure the trees much, and often kill them, by girdling them 
quite round, just under the surfdce of the^soil. 

* To previ^nt these winged insects from operating on the 
softened bark, near the surface, a hill of earth about a foot 
high is raised round each tree, aboat the 1st of June; and 
taken away about the 1st of September. These insects 
either find the bark too hard and dry to pierce, or the tak- 
ing away the earth leaves the eggs uncovered and they 
purish. The fact is, after ten years trial, Mr. Bay ley has 
found his trees thus completely preserved against the 
worms. 

' The age of a peach-orchard, Mr. Bayley estimates at 
tweniy years;' He has seen them much older; but thinks 
mure profits to be had, by replanting at the end of twenty* 
years. A tree is nearly in pCTfection the sixth year; when 
it will yield annually at the rate of fifteen gallons of fourth- 
proof brandy, for every hundred trees. The price of this 
liquor, before the War, was one dollar fifty cents, and now 
two dollars per gallon.' 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 287 

< When the season of gathering: p» aches commences, a 
number ot H^nds are hired, 6hif fly Boys, at the price of 
one third of a dollar per day. The Hands gather peaches 
at the rate of one ..hundred gallons of peach juice per day, 
each, which yields seven gallons of fourth-proot briud,v ♦ 

* A Man and a Horse bruises, and puts into tii^bs tor fer- 
mentation, enough per day for one thousand gallons ot juice. 
The peaches are bruised in a mill, similar to the stone bark- 
mills; but the wh^ is a wooden one, four feet in diamel'er, 
and nine inches thick, runing in a circular trougb||fighreen 
inches wide, and twelve inches deep. The peach^nes are 
not broken, nor any use made of the kernal. 

' After complete fermentation, which often takes eight 
days, the jui9e is drawn through a tap near the bottom, and 
distiled as cider is. When no more juice will run, the 
pomace is pressed to get out what femains ' 

Mr Geddes observes that, notwithstanding the expense 
•of the ploughings and harrowings, &c. the clear profits of 
the orchards ot Mv. Bayley have frequently been upwards 
*Df twenty dollars an acre. » ^ 

It might be further observed, that the pomace, after the 
'juice is expressed, t%ethe#wilh the stones, might'be made 
of considerable value, in feeding and fating Swine. 

This culture seems more particularly adapted to the great 
tract of mellow, level, sandy landiwhich stretches along the 
Atlantic, in the Middle and Southern States, than for harddr 
soils, and hilly grounds ; as the hardness of the soil would 
increase the expense ot tillage, and the soil of hills would 
be subject to waste, by the heavy rains, when kept constant- 
ly under the plough. 

We would merely observe, that planting a row of pump- 
kins between each two rows of trees, would probably af- 
ford a great additional pi^ofit; as they could be cultivated 
with merely the additional expense of hoeing the plants, 
and applying a little gypsum, or other suitable manure, to 
the hills. 

The rows of these, being each ten feet distant from the 
rows of trees, would be but little injured by their shade. 
Let the. pumpkins be planted in hills, at the distance of 
about four or five feet from each other. 

See Pumpkin See also, Fruit-trees, Nursery, Trans- 
planting, See. 

'\> 
PEARTREE (Pijrus.) This tree will gr6M|better on a 
stiff clay, than most other fruit-trees; but th^oils which 
best suit the appletree are also most suitable for it. A scion 
of this tree may be grafted on an appletree j but it does not 
answer so well, as when grafted on a quince, for dwarf-fruit; 
and a quince answers well to be grafted on a peartree. The 



288 FARMER»s ASSISTANT. 

pear will also grow on the white-thorn. The best way, 
however, is to graft the pear on its own natural stock, se* 
lecting scions from the best trees, as in the case of apple- 
trees, vt, 

Let some part.of the selection also, as in the case of 
peachtreesH last mentioned, be made from trees whose fruit 
ripens at different times, in order to have a full supply for 
family-use Generally, it may be observed, that the culture 
which is proper for an appletree, is also proper for a pear- 
tree. ::^ 

See Appletrees, Orchard, Fruit-trees, Nursery, 
Transplanting, &c. 

PERRY. To make good perry, manage the pears in the 
same manner that apples are directed to be managed to 
make good cider, with this difference, that the pears need 
not be sweated so long as the apples, by being laid in heaps 
for that purpose. 
^See Cider. 

A *drink, called fierkin^ is also made from the pressed 
cheese of pears, in the same manner that ciderkin is made 
from that of Apples. ^ ^ 

More attention should be paid in this Country to the se- 
lection of such peartrees as bear plentifully, and yearly, of 
th^ best kinds of fruit. 

Se^ CuTiNGs, Orchard, 8cc. 

PLANETREE, or BUTTONWOOD (Platanus Occi- 
dentalis.) This tree is a native of this Country. It grows 
rapidly, and is useful in pastures for shade, and ornamental 
in many situations. It is good for fuel; but very difficult 
to split, owing to the crookedness and intermixture of the 
fibres of the wood. 

This circumstance would, however, seem to render it 
particularly valuable to cultivate, for being sawed into 
hoards for cabinet-work; for these, when polished, and 
colored in the manner we shall mention, are said to be as 
beautifully clouded, as the clouded mahogany. 

The color of mahogany is given to this wood, by staining 
it with a mixture of Dragonsblood, from the Canaries (not 
that from Madagascar) and oil of turpentine, boiled in a 
stone or porcelain vessel, and laid on boiling hot. If the 
boards can be boiled in this mixture, it will stain them 
nearly throogh. 

ft the wood of this tree be free from any disposition to 
warp or twist, when sawed into boards, it may be found 
valuable for being made into furniture, when the method 
of giving it the mahogany- color is known. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 289 



PLOUGH. To construct this implement in such manner 
thai it will do its work effectually, and at the same time 
pass through the ground with the greatest possible ease,,iis 
a matter of the utmost importance; as well to the Farmer 
individually, as to the Country at large, in an economical 
point of view. 

It is found, in Gi:eatbritain, that two Horses can as easily 
draw one of- the ploughs, which are ^onstructed_afler the 
most modern improvements, as three can one^*bf those 
-which were formerly used there; of course, the Farmer 
becomes thus enabled to perform his ploughing with one 
Horse less, to each plough, than formerly ; which may be 
estimated at a saving of about forty dollars a year, for the 
labor of each Horse thus dispensed with; or a saying of 
labor to the yearly value of same millions of dollars to the 
Country. , 

It is the various means which have been adopted for 
saving of labor, in that Country, which have principally 
contributed to raise it to that degree of power and emi- 
nence, which at present il possesses. 

It is not to be expected, that every common Mechanic 
can construct a good plough. The making of them oug:ht 
to be a separate business, and conducted by Men of sufti* 
cient genius, and information, for the purpose. A patent- 
plough is now made and sold in the county of Cayuga, 
which is said to be very well constructed. . 

If ingenious Mechanics g;voutd make themselves acquaint- 
ed with the principles necessary to be observed in the best 
construction of ploughs, and would keep such constantly for 
sale, they would find the business profitable, and they would 
be rendering essential service to the Country. 

In the American Edition of the Edinburg Encyclopedia 
are exhibited, drawings of well-constructed ploughs; and 
the principles necessary to be observed in their construction 
are there also laid down. The Farmer, or the Mechanic, 
may readily refer to the Work in question. 

As it is very difficult to convey an adequate idea of a 
well-constructed plough, without drawings of it, and as this 
Work is not intended to contain any of these, ^y descrip- 
tion, in detail, pf such plough is here omited : Some gen- 
eral observations on the best construction may, however, 
not be amiss. 

I. The lighter the plough, the easier it is ilrawn. In 
light smooth soils, which offer no impediment to the 
plough, it may be very light, and yet sufficiently strong- 
In those which are'stifF, stony, or rocky, its strength must 
be equal to sustaining the draft, and the shocks it has to 
encounter. In the latter cases, it requires double, and per- 

3r^ 



290 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

haps three times, the strength that is necessary in the 
former. 

2. In cleaving the earth, the plough is governed by the 
principle of the wedge: Like the wedge, therefore, the 
share and the mouldboard should widen uniformly, and 
very gradually. The bottom of the plough should be of 
pretty good length, and somewhat narrower than the usual 
width of the sward which it turns over at one furrow. 
Thus, if it usually ^cut ten inches in width of the sward, 
the widlst part of the share, and of the bottom of the 
plough, behind, should not be quite nine inches. But the 
upper side of the mouldboard, behind, should project over 
beyond this width as much as four inches, in order to lay 
the sward completely over. 

3 The coulter should be set with its lower end in a 
very slartling direction frjrward, so as to run under the 
sward and raise it some in cuting it. The share should be 
so sfiaped as to assist in raising the swaid. gradually, till it 
is received by the mouldboard ; which, by its twisting 
shape, should as gradually turn it over. 

4. In order for the plough to run steadily, it should have 
a good length of beam, and i't should not be set too high, 
If the beam be short, and set high, the plough will raise up 
behind. The beam should, however, be so curved as to 
r^e considerably where . the coulter passes through it, in 
order that the ploug^h shall be less liable to clog, when 

" used in weedy, qr stubble, t>round. 

5. But, after giving the plough the best possible shape, 
a very essential point is, to have every part that is worn by 
the earth, in turning the furrow, either plated with, or made 
ol, cast iron, or well hardened steel. If the share is made 

» of the former, the chip may be cast with it, so as to form 
bur one piece ; or, if the chip be of wood, it should be 
covered with plates of cast iron, where it rubs against the 
earth. The mouldboard should also be cast; and it should 
be smooth, so that the earth will not adhere to it, as it does 
to a wooden mouldboard, when ploughing in ground which 
is somewhat wet. A plough, thus made, ^ passes as much 
easier through the ground, than one whose mouldboard and 
chip are merely of Wood ; as a sled, shod with, cast iron, 
draws easier over the bare earth, than one that is shod 
with wood. 

Cast-iron ploughshares answer very well in smooth lands, 
and are much cheaper than those made of wroughi ron* 
They, however, require an edge, made of hardened st 1 1, 
which is fastened to the share in such manner as to be 
readily taken off, at pleasure. 

Tue German Farmers of this county, and its vicinky, 
itoake use of a large heavy plough, supported by two 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 291 

i^heels, and drawn by three Horses, which, in smooth lands, 
makes very good work; but it is believed that ploughs 
without wheels, when well constructed, will perform just 
as well, and at the same time as easily, with two Horses, as 
the wheel-plough will with three. 

For the purpose ot gctging the plough, when turning over 
a smooth swaro, one small wheel ot cast iron, properly fixed 
under the end ot the beam, would be found to run much 
»asien and would be much cheaper, than the wheelplough 
just mentioned. This wheel might be so contrived as to be 
raised, or lowered) so as to make the plough run deeper, or 
shallower, at pleasure. 

Instead of the present method of directing the plough, 
it might be performed, to better effect, in smooth lands 
particularly, by a moveable coulter, ,which could be turned 
to the one side or the other, by a tiller; so that the opera- 
tion of steering the plough would be similar to turning the 
rudder of a vessel, for the purpose of steering it, if the 
riidder were placed before. 

^ In the one-horse plough,' which is proper to be used in 
cultivating hoed crops, a Coulter is not necessary. The 
share, and the construction of the plough, in other respects, 
should be nearly similar to that of the plough, first spoken 
of, but smaller, and lighter; and it is not so essential to 
have its mouldboard of cast iron ; nor need it have So mu0h 
of the twisting shape. 

In constructing a plough to be drawn by two or more 
Oxen, it is believed that the better way is, to extend the 
beam quite into the ring of the yoke; and, even, in such 
case, the beam need not be very long, as the heels of the 
Oxen would require to be only a little before the coulter. 
A plough thus contrived would be found to run as steady as 
a wheelplough. 

Nor would there be any difficulty in extending the beam 
of the plough between a span ot Horses, and thus bringing 
them back, in the same manner, so that their heels should 
be just before thp coulter. In this case, there should be a 
cross-piece, fixed on the end of the beam, about eight inches 
in length, and from the ends of this two short ropes, or 
chains, should extend to the inner sides of the haims by 
which the Horses are to draw ; and two such short ropes, 
or chains, should extend from the outer sides of the haims 
to two outside shafts, which should extend from a cross- 
piece, to be set on the beam of the plough, just before the 
coulter. 

A two-horse plough, fixed in this manner, would also run 
as steadily as a wheel-plough; the team would be much 
shortened, which in. ploughing is highly desirable ; and the 
expense of tiffe harness for the Horses need be nothing 



292 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

more than that of the short ropes or chains, before mcnt!oti« 
cd, which are to be attached to a pair of wooden haims to 
each Horse; each haim being nothing more than two pieces 
of wood, about three inches broad, properly shaped and 
smoothly rounded on the sides, which are put, one on each 
side, oi the shoulder of the Horse, and tied together, above 
and below. 

Ii has been well ascertained, that haims of this kind are 
less liable to injure Horses, than any kind of harness what- 
ever. 

A onehorse plough may also be drawn, by having the 
Horse between shafts fixed to the beam of the plough. In 
this case, and also where the plough is drawn by two 
Horses, in the manner just described, the cross-pieces 
whicl) hold the shafts should each work on a pivot, so that 
the plough could be inclmed to the one side or the other, 
for the purpose of directing it ; unless the method, before 
described, ot directing it ^y the coulter, should be ado'pied. 

A ' double-fined' plough is described by Mr. Livingstoru 
V'hich he saw in different parts of France: It * has 1 
mouldboard fixed on a hook akt the share, and by a pin at 
the broad end, which nasses through the mouldboard and 
into the beam. When it comies to the end of the furrow, 
instead of making a land, the mouldboard is shifted to the 
other side ; which is done Very quickly, and has the advan- 
tage of throwing the furrows all one way.* , 

A plough of this kind is particularly useful in ploughing 
sides of hills. 

Another kind of plough, which is well adapted to that 
use, is the double-plough ; that is, a plough with two shares, 
coulters, Sec. placed on the opposite sides of the beam ; so 
, that when a furrow is turning with one share, the other is 
above the beam bottom upwards. At the end of the fur- 
row, this share is turned down, and the other up, and thus 
the work proceeds. The handle is separate ; and the lower 
end is merely set in between pins that hold the beam and 
the mouldboards together. When the other side of the 
plough is turned. up, the handle is taken cut, and set into 
the other side, in the same manner. 

There is another kind of double-plough, which has been 
lone: used in some parts of Etigland ; and in smooth, light, 
sandy soils, particularly, is wtll adapted for dispatch. It 
turns two furrows at otice ; arid for this purpose has two 
shares, mouldboards, kc. the one behind the other. It 
would seem that the principal difficulty, with such a plough, 
must be in directing it: But, probably, one of the moveable 
coulters, before described, applied to the foremost share, 
would obviate every inconvenience. ^, 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT;' 2fl3 

Ploughs are someiimes constructed with two handles, 
and sometimes with but one. Ofie is sufficient; two is only 
producuve or more expense. The handle should lean con- 
siderably back; and it should have a pin set in behind, near 
the upper end, to take hold of, and for the lines to rest on, 
where Horses are used in ploughing. 

A small handplough might, as is believed, be very advan- 
^ tageously used tor the purpose of eradicating weeds among 
several kinda of growing crops of roots; such as onions, 
carrots, parsnips, &c. It should have two light handles, 
leaning well backward, of the length of, say, four and a 
half feet, or of such hr-ngth as will be found most proper 
for the purpose of fiuahing the plough torward by hand. 

It should have a beam, and share, of such dimensions 
that the plough would cut a furrow of, say, an inch in 
depth, and about lour inches wide. The sh^re should be 
shaped similar to that of the large plough, betore mention- 
ed ; and it should be kept #*:11 ground, so as to cut off^all 
#e roots of weeds which conic in its way. 
For the purpose of regulating the depth that it should 
run, it may have a whed', ot^^rolier, placed under the tore- 
end of the beam; though it 'is believed thai, in skilful 
hands, this \vould not be necessary. It should be run close 
to the rows of roots, turning the furrow from thenn, in the 
first place, and then turning it back to them again. 

PLOUGHING. Mr. Livingston mentions an experiment 
madi^, by which it was ascertained, that dew, when evapo- 
rated, is found to contain a rich sediment, that rainwater 
does not possess; and hence may be adduced a good; reason 
for the commonly-received opinion, that ground is most ben- 
efied by ploughing while the -dew is on. 

In preparing for a crop, some lands require to be oftener, 
and some to be deeper, ploughed, than others. The stifl' 
and cluy soils require the inost ploughing, and the gravelly 
soil the <leepest. The more dry and gravelly the soil, the 
deeper it should be ploughed, in order to enable it to with- 
stand the droughts of Summer; and the more stiff and 
clayey the soil, the oftener it should be ploughed, and also 
rolled, and harrowed, in order to reduce it to a fine tilth, 
and to r^iise in it that state of fermentation, each of which, 
in such soils, is essentially necessary for the growing of 
crops. ^ 

It may indeed be laid down, as a general rule, that every 
kind of soil should be in a finely-pulverized state, before it 
is applied to the growing of crops ; but some soils are 
much easier reduced to this stale, than others. The light 
sandy soil \^ easily mellowed : It neither requires much 
ploughing, nor need the ploughing be very deep; but this 



394 FARMER*s ASSISTANT. 

soil essentially requires, that what is not expended on it in 
ploughing, for the gro\«ihg crop, should be laid out in 
manurint^ it 

^ See Improvement of Lands 

M^ Young, m nis Six Weeks Tour, found that the ave- 
rage depth of ploughing sandy lands, in Greatbritain* was 
four inches ; of loanny soils, tour and three-quarters; and 
of clayey soils, three and a half. In Ireland, they plough 
considerably deeper than this. 

1^ See Pasture of Plants, for the method of ascertaining 
what depth in ploughing will afford the greatest crops of 
the diflerent kinds of plants. 

But it should be rentiembered, that they deeper you 
plough, the more expensive is the operation ; and this 
additional expense should be taken into the estimate, in 
determining what depth it is most profitable to plough. 
Generally speaking, it is believed that, for most kinds of 
crops, the depths just mentidilfed will be found to answer 
as well as any other; except, that very dry gravelly soils, 
should be ploughed considerably deeper. ^ 

The practice of Mr. Young was, not to plough very deep- 
ly in common; but to give His lands deep ploughings at 
certain intervals. This may be very proper where the soil 
is naturally deep; where the upper stratum of vegetable 
mould has been artificially made deep by a long course of 
tillage, and manuring; or where this stratum has become 
exhausted by severe croping, and that below is a strong 
earth, which can be readily fertilized by the Winter-frost, 
and Summer-sun. 

But, v/here the earth below is naturally poor, and inca- 
pable oi being quickly fertilized in this way, no benefit can 
result; but, perhaps, much injury, from ploughing deeper 
than usual. 

For turning up a new layier of earth, see Trench- 

PLOUGIIING. 

Mr. Deane makes mention of f piece of land which was 
Summer-fallowed, and sown with rye. One part Was 
ploughed three times only ; the other part, eleven times : 
The crop was all harrowed in at the same time; and the 
result was, that the product of the part which was most 
ploughed was about double that of the other. 

It would have been wt II to have mentioned, what kind of 
soil this was ; as this W>oull have served to assist in point- 
ing out the soils which are most benefited by frequent 
ploughings. Gt nerally speaking, it is believed that all the 
more obdurate kinds of soils are most assisted by frequent 
ploughings, and harrowings, and some of these, perhaps, 
more than others. 

She .Fallowing, of Land. ^ 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT, 293 

Ploughing should always be done effectually. Of what- 
ever depth the soil is to be ploughed, every part should bo 
turned up, or loosened, to that depth. The furrows, there- 
fore, should not be too wide ; for, if they are, parts of the 
ground will remain unturned, or unloosened. In order that 
the ploughing be completely perf6i;med, the plough should 
run perfectly flat, and be of the best construction. 
%. See Plough 

Among most Farmers, it is the practice constantly to 
turn the lur'rows against the fences^ but this is slovenly 
culture, and is injurious to the land. The uppermost part 
ot almost every soil is the richest. Now, if you keep con- 
stantly ploughing the land next to the fence with a cleaVihg- 
furrow, this upper layer of the soil becomes, at length, all 
thrown up against the fence, on the one side of the land, 
and into an useless heap on the other ; and, to supply the 
place of the soil thus thrown off on each side, the crude 
earth below must be thrown up ; and iliis earth will require 
considerable time, tillage, and manuring, to make it as g«t)d 

1)^ the soil which has thus been improvidently turn^ off 
rom the surface of the fitld. ^ 

This matter is the more^worthy of attention, as it re- 
quires no trouble wbatever to correct this slovenly practice: 
All that is necessary is, to plough the lands next to the 
fences as often with a gathering, as with a cleaving, furrow| 
or, in other words, to plough as often from the fence, as 
against it. Indeed, it would be desirable, in every part of 
the field, to have the gathering-furrows always at the places 
where the last parting-furrows were made. This would 
serve to keep the layer of vegetable mould spread evenly 
over the surface, which is a matter of more consequence 
to the growing crop, than is generally imagined 

In the ploughed field, the gathering-lurrows of repeated 
ploughings win frequently happen to be nearly in the same 
places; of course, the parting-furrows will be nearly to- 
gether in other pj^rts. By these means, the vegetable mould 
becomes unevenly spread over the furtace ; in some places 
it is deeper than is necessary, and in others too scanty; and 
this is usually productive of a proportionate deficiency m 
the growing crop, where the mould is too thin, without a 
coresponding increase, where the moqlti is deeper than is 
necessary. ' 

Now, all that is requisite, in order to remedy this incon- 
venience, IS to have the field marked out into lands, and 
then lo plough these with cleaving, and gathering, furrows, 
alternately j and, tg mark out the lunds, it is only necessary 
to measure their widths on the four sides ol the field, and 
then to designat#!he extent ot each land by visible markS) 
fastened on ^the fc^hces on the different sides of the field, 



296 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

Sometimes, however, fijeWs are too irregularly shaped, or 
of too uneven surface, 0"%c convenient tor ploughing in 
this regular manner. 

Sides of hills, which are steep, can only be ploughed to 
advantage by constantly turning the furrows downward. 

See Plough, for the kind of this implement which is 
proper to be used for this purpose. 

But lands of this description are unfit for the plough; or, 
if ploughed, it should be but sfeldom. Rather let them be 
kept for pastures, for orchards, for raising growths of wood, 
or, in some cases, for vineyards. By ploughing such lands, 
the upper stratum, or vegetable mould, is constantly de- 
scenclmg to the bottom of the hill; not only^by its being 
thrown farther down at every ploughing, but much of its 
finest parts are carried down by the heavy rains. 

Some sides of hills are, however, of such soil as is little 
waslied by the rains ; and are at the same time of such a 
depth of that kind of earth, which can be readily converted 
int^ a good vegetable mould, that thfy may be ploughed for 
ceniuries without essential injury; provided they are a^ 
well treated es other lands, in regard to manures, and fre- 
quf^nt crops of grass 

Where the swlird is turned over, in order to be harrowed 
in with a crop, it should be done in a very cartful manner: 
The sw^rd should all be completely turned over; but, say 
some British Writers, not so as to lie flat ; the sward last 
turned should lap a little on the one next preceding, in 
order that, by this mean, the harrojj/ may the more readily 
take hold of the soil. 

This method of raising crops, however, will only be 
found successful in the sandy and mellower kinds of soils; 
In the very hard, or stiff, kinds it will seldom do well ; but 
in all soils a clover-sward, turned under, will be found to 
answer the best purpose. 

Under Fallowing of Land, considerable has been* said, 
in regard to ploughing, which need not be here repeated. 
In general, it may be observed, that, after jbfee sward has 
been turned over, the object of further ploiii^'ings being: to 
iiiellow the soil, and thereby to produce that degree of fer- 
mentation which is essential to growing of plants in the 
best manner, and of keeping up that fermentation as long 
as possible; much depends upon the dmey as well as the 
manner, in which the ploughings are performed. 

It the ploughings are but partially performed ; that is, if 
parts of the ground be left unloosened to the requisite 
depth, the fermentation of the loosened 'part of the surface 
must, of course, be partial, and the parts which remain un- 
loosened must present barriers, beyond which the roots of 
the grovv'ing plants cannot extend j of course, the plants 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 297 

must be curtailed of their requisite pasture, and be propor- 
tionately lessened in their growth. . 

One good even ploughing, thereforeV where the grouiid 
is all loosened to the requisite depth, may prove as bentfi- 
cial to the growing crop, as two ploughings which are but 
partially performed; that is, where the plough runs so 
wide, or so far from a horizontal position, as to leave 
considerable ridges unclerneath which remain unloosened 
by the plough. ,'*^ 1} %fc 

Much also depends on the time of ploughing most kinds 
of soils, after the turning of the sward, except the light 
sandy, or the very coarse gravelly soil. These may be 
ploughed soon after the rains; but if the soil be moist, or 
stiff, or everr if it be dry, but contains a sufficient pro- 
portion of vegetable mould, the time selected for plough- 
ing should be when these soils, will pulverize the most 
readily. , ,^ 

Under Fallowing of Laj^d, we have mentioned the 
most favorable time for mellowing clays, when baked into 

Soils whic^hydo not bake, and yet are sufficiently retentive 
of moisture, will be most easily pulverized when they are 
considerably well dried, or at least so dry as that they will 
not adhere to the, imouldboard in ploughing. When in an 
extreme dry state, jthey will not, generally, be mellowed so 
much by a ploughing : Of course, they will ferment less 
when moistened again by the rains. Still, however, the 
drier the state of the soil, the better condition it will be iti 
for the purpose of destroying any roots of weeds it may 
contain, or any grass which may remain unsubdued. 

The breaking up of sward^lands being the most laborious 
operation of ploughing, it becomes necessary to perfortn it 
when it can be done with most ease; and this is when the 
ground is sufficiently moist. Many soils may, however, be 
too wet, at times, to be broken up to advantage; for, as 
in that case, much earth will adhere to the mouldboard, 
the plough will be cloged in its operation, and mil not 
pass so easily through the ground, as when. it_is somewhat 
drier. ' • a 

Sward whicli is turned over, when quite dry, will rot the 
soonest, and ^ the soil will be most easily pulverized by 
successive ploughings; but the labor then becomes much 
severer, and the plough will not so readily keep its place 
ii;j^the soil. 

Thbse remarks are, however, not applicable to the light 
sandy, or the dry gravelly, soil, before mentioned. . Thej^e 
should be broken up, while they have as miiclj moisture in 
them as they can-d^maln. 

'"^■' ^ 38 



'MM^ 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 



PLUMTREE (Prunus ) Mr. Forsyth recommends the 
following: iiclectiun of plufhtrees tor a. small garden: 

The nvhite firismordian^ small, yellow, mealy ; ripens latter 
end of July 

£aril/^ damask, middle-sized, flesh good ; ripens early in 
Aii^u.st. * ' 

J^ed Orleans^ large, rich juice; ripens latter end of 
Ao^-ust .,.' ' ji^ ' ^' ' >1 

' Green-gage, several varieties, fine-tasted, distinguished by 
Its siz*^ ■lid color; ripens in August and September. 

La royal, equal to the green- gage, but a shy bearer; red 
color; ripens late in September. 

Bra/i d'or, a good plumj and plentiful bearef ; ripens late 
in September, / 

Saint Catharine^ one of the best; rich juice, and good 
bettrer ; fruit hangs very long on the tree. 

Imfieratrice, has an agreeable flavor; ripens middle of 
October; should not be gathered till it begins to shrivej, 
when it tastes like a sweetmeat. 

The management proper for raising this tr^^^|^ the sam^ 
as that for peaches. 
See Peachtree. 

Mr. Forsyth particularly directs the tap-roots and the 
fine hairy roots to be taken off, before transplanting; and 
that the latteral roots should be spread near the surface, in 
order to make the fruit fine-flavored. He directs that the 
ground should be deeply dug, before planting. Where the 
trees bear too heavily, part of the fruit should be taken off, 
before it is half grown. 

A good sandy loam, well manured, is the best for this 
tree. Stiff clays are very unfit for it. Mr. Livingston 
mentions a draji rf*or which stood fifteen years in a stiff 
clay, and had not grown to the height of nine feet; when, 
on removing it into his garden,, which is a loam on sand, 
well manured every year, it gre# tflore iij' two seasons than 
in the precediifg^fifteen years / 

See Fruit-trees Nursery, TransplantiiJ'g, &c. ' 

POLLEVIL. ^ An tmposthume on the poll of a Horse. 
At firs'f, says Mr. Gibson, it requires no other method of 
cure ihan is pioper for boils and inflamed tumors; but it 
sometimes* from neglect, or mismanagement, becomes a 
sinuous ulcer- He says the matter is apt to lodge in a small 
sinus which is under the poll bone, unless care be taken to 
keep the part firm wilhr a bandage ; that, if the tumor has a 
large cavity, it should be bid open ; and if it acquire an ul- 
cerous disposition, it should bt treated as^uch. 
_ *5fe further, Tumor and Ulcer. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 2^9 



PONDS. Those which have no natural o»itlet n^y, 
nevenheiess, in niost cases, be drawn off by sinking a well, 
or hole, through the stratum ot clay, or other close earth 
Which holds the water, until a stratum of gravel shall be 
found, into which the water ot the pond m^y be carried, 
"Where it will sink away. The well, or hole, should be filled 
«p with stones, and the waters ot the pond directed by 
ditches into it. Frequently the bottoms ot ponds are found 
to be fine rich earths, and well worthy of r.ultivation. The 
draining of such ponds is also highly reiquisite, tor the pur- 
pose of dvoidine: the miasma whicl^^proceeds from ihem, and 
which is so proBbctive ot levers. 

Artificial ponds are sometimes made at the corners of 
two or more pasture-lots, for supplying cattle ;Wiih Water. 
One, ot an hundred and twenty feet circumterence, should 
be about five feet deep in the centre. To make it reterttive 
of water, it nausl be lined with a thick layer of tough clay 
and fresh slaktd lime, mixed well logr^flicr, and beas down 
hard with wobden beetles or sledges'; and on the top ot tais 
beat in a good layer of coarse gravfel. The edges, and tor 
some distance down the sides, ot the pond, should then be 
faced with a solid pavement ot stones, so large as not to 
be moved by the treading of the cattle.^ Moist places, and 
those where water can be collected together after rains, are 
best for ponds ot this kind. 

POPPY ( Pafiaver Somniferum. ) There are two species 
of this plant, the double poppy and the single. 

Doctor Ricketson says, that either of the species yield the 
same quantity and quality of opium. He directs the seeds 
to be planted in beds, about the middle of May, in rich 
moist ground; the plants to stand a foot apart. They are 
to be kept clear of weeds with the hoe. 

The plants, he says, yield the most jiiice during their 
flow « in gj and immediately before and after. At this time, 
he diiects the stalks to be cut off about an inch below the 
heads; and, as the juice exudes, to take it off with a pen- 
knife. The part cut off will at first yield juice as well as 
the standing stalk. When this ceases to run, cut it off a 
little lower, and so on, till all the juice is extracted. 

The juice is' to be evaporated in the sun, jtill it is sufii- 
oiently dried. 

^jOne method mentioned by Mr. Green j for obtaining the 
juice of the poppy, is by making four or five' longnudlfi^l 
incisions, in each of the capsules of the plant, from the 
stalk upwards, before or at the time they are fully ripej 
taking care, however, not to penetrate the cavity of the 
seedvessels. 



300 « FARMER'S ASSISTANT, 

'^Another is, by pounding the dried leaves, stems, and 
capsules ; boiling thenra, when pulverized, in water, and then 
cleansing and reducing it by evaporation. It may be readily 
cleansed by runing it through a small leach, of about tour 
or fiveiiriches in depth, of charcoal, pounded or ground fine, 
underlaid v/ith three or four folds of flannel. 

The seeds of the poppy also afford an oil, which is fully 
equal to the olive-oil, for the purposes for which that is 
used. The seeds should be fully ripened, before they are 
used for this purpose, and the oil tl;iey afford is then found 
as wholesome as any oili^er. 

The oil of the poppy-sfeeds is becoming common in Eu- 
rope, as a substitute for fbat of the olive. # 

The poppy is cultivated to some ei^tent in Pennsylvania ; 
and, no doubi, its culture isC^lbund to be lucrative. 

POTATOE (Solanum.) This root is a native of this 
Country, and was first carried to Europe by Sir Walter 
Raleigh. When boiled, it is a wholesome and nourishing 
food ior^Man or beast. ^ Many families in I rel^n^ subsist on 
potatoes and milk, and otten on potatoes only, with a little 
salt ; yet these are as heaithy, vigorous, and well-made as 
any People in Greatbritain. . 

Potatoes are usually cuhivated from tRe roots; but they 
may be also raised' from the cutings of'-the top branches, 
>vhen set in the ground; and these will strike root, even if 
planted bottom upwards. The sprouts taken from potatoes 
will also grow. The root itself will not grow, if planted the 
same season in whjch it has been raised. 

From the seeds of the apples, potatoes may also be rais- 
ed ; and this is the best way for obtaining new varieties ot 
.the plant. Gather the apples after the seeds are fully ripe ; 
mash them in water till they are cleared of the pulp ; then 
dry the seeds ; and next Spring sow them in a bed, which 
is to be kept clear ot weeds. 

In the Faff, sihall potatoes will be found at tHe rootS^ of 
the plants i and the different varieties of these are to be 
separately planted the next season ; when they will produce 
potatoes of the Uipal size; and at this time the respective 
qualities of each variety can be ascertained. 

New varieties may also be obtained, in the manner men- 
tioned under Change and Improvement of Seeds. 

It is advisable trequently to produce new varieties, as 
some are much more valuable than others. 

potatoes may be raised to advantage in various kinds .of 
soils; provided they are sufficiently rich, or well manured. 
They wilf even grow in peaty . groupds, where no other 
^lant could be raised to any advantage. Stiff'clays, and cold 
>yet soils, are not so well suited for them. Coarse crude 



■-■A 
FARMER'S ASSISTANT, - 301 

manures, such as fresh ba>n-dung, moss, peat, turf, dra 
woolen ragii, &c. are all good for them. Any manurt-,, that 
serves to keep the aground loose and mellow, seepas well 
adapted for growing this plant. ?v 

They may be raised, of good size, by merely laying them 
on a green sward, and covering them six or ei^ht inches 
deep with straw. Salt, brine, or seawaier, is also good for 
them, when applied in moderate quantities to the hills, or 
rows. It is also found that weting them, and then rolling 
them in -gypsum, immediately before planting, ^xeatly as- 
sists the growth of the crop. 

Sward grounds are commonly best adapted for their cul- 
ture. The method commonly pursued in England, for rais- 
ing the crop, is, we believe, the most expeditious, and, at 
the same time, as wtll calculated to ensure good crops, as 
any other, and is as follows; 

»reak up the ground in the Fall, if it be a sward, and 
give it a good^harrowing, at a suitable time, the next Spring; 
ihen spread, of barn-dung, or other suitable manure, at the 
rate of about twenty loads to the acre, over the ground ; 
when it will be ready to commence the operation of 
planting. 

In order to this, begin with runing a furrow, of a suitable 
depth, and into this furrow the dung lyiijg on the tOrface is 
drawn, from a distance of about twenty-seven inches along 
next the furrow, and distributed evenly along its bottom. 
On this the potatoes, cut in pieces, are laid along, about 
eight inches apart, and they are covered by the next furrow. 
Then two more futcows are run, the second of which is to 
be the bed for the nekt row, and the dung^ is again drawn 
into this, and the seed laid, as before, which are again co- 
vered by the next furrow; and so the work proceeds. The 
rows in this way are in every third furrow, or at the dis- 
tance of about twenty'seven inches apart. 

If the seed- potatoes are not cut in pieces, but plan'ted 
•whole, they should be laid about eighteen inches from each 
other; and' ift^ this case the dung should be' collected more 
tog4ither, at the places where the potatoes are to be laid. 
There is very little gained by cining the seed in pieces for 
planting.^ 

When the plants have risen about six inches above 

ground, it is to have a good harrowing, across the rows; 

^nd the hoe is to follow, for the purpose of seting the 

plants right, where covered, and drawing some eaft-th round 

them. ' f 

In due season, a furrow, with the one-horse plough, is to 
be run on each side of the rows, with the earth thrown up 
to the plants^, .^which is to be followed with the hoe, which 
completes the process for raising the crop. If any weeds 



302 * PARMER'^ ASSISTANT. 



she 



buld afterwards rise, they should be cut up with the hoe,; 
s>o that none be allowed to go to seed in the Fall. 

As soon as the blossoms appear, they should all be tdkan- 
off; aiil|this, by experinnenis which have been accurately 
made iw* Massachusetts, is found very considerably tq in- 
crease the crop. ^_ 

For gathering the crop, the most expeditious way is, first 
to i'un furrows on each side of the rows, and then a pretty 
depp one through the tiliddle, which turns up most of the 
roots to the surface, for the purpose of picking up by hand. 
A fork, with lour prongs, is very good for going over the 
ground, for bringing up thos^ to the surface which remain 
covered. A fork of this description, with the addition of 
what may be|, called a fulcrum, fastened, by pivot, to the 
batk pari ol^the handle, near its lower end, is an excelent 
implement for raising potatoes, without the aid of the 
plough. 

The fork is run under the potatoes ; and \hen, by rais- 
ing up the handle, the fulcrum, turning on its pivot, is 
brought in a perpendicular direction, with its lower end to 
the, ground ; when, b^ pressing down the haridlej the fork 
becomes a lever, and the potatoes, with the earth enclosing 
thtm, are raised up; when, by shaking the mass, the earth 
falls fir'St, and the potatoes remain mostly on the surface. 
Timse remaining covered, are readily disclosed by the 
prongs of the fork 

We have (bought proper to describe, in detail, this me- 
thod of raising the potatoe-crop, from a conviction ot its 
superiority, as well in saving labor, as in obtaining the 
greatest product from the ground. The methods commonly 
pursued, in this Country, are too well known to need any 
description. 

A Planter, of N^rth-carolina, lately sent some Potatoes to 
the Westindies, for market; a part of which were dried in 
the sun, in the usual way, and a part were laid away in 
moist or wet s?in^i as fast as they Wer« dug; and, when ex- 
hibiteti for sale^^he obtained three times the amount, per 
bushel, for those laid in sand, that he got for the others. 

We mention this circumstance, in order to observe that 
such potatoes, as are designed for the table, should be 
laid away in wet sand, as fast as they are taken from the 
earth. 

We have had occasion, by way of experiment, to plant# 
rows of hills, alternately, of the very smallest, and of the 
largest, potatoes; each being selected for the purpose, and 
one potatoe planted whole in each hill. At the same time, 
a row of hills was planted with two whole potatoes to each 
hill ; and the result of the whole was as follows: 



FARMER'S ASSISTANTS 303 

The stalks, in the hills grown from thcb small potatoes, 
Xere not mftre than halt as bulky and high, as the stalks 6i 
those grown from the krge ones ; and, the stalks, of those 
grown from two potatoes to >, hill, were of a medium size 
between the two. , .^a^fci. 

On diging jthe crop, no essential difference was l^nd in 
the product, or size, of the potatoes grown from the small, 
and the large, ones. THt product of the row, grown from 
tyto to d hill, was also about the same in quantity; but more 
numerous^ and of smaller size 

We will mention the method of raising potatoes, by the 
poorer Peasantry of Ireland. The potatoes are cut in pie- 
ces, and planted on the sward, previously dunged, and 
marked out for beds about eight feet wide ;' leaving the 
width of about fifteen inches between the ground intended 
for each two beds, for the purpose of diging al' trench for 
affording earth to cover the beds. ^;:, 

' The covering should be about three inches deep. The 
crop, while growing, is kept clear of weeds, by the hoe, 
and by hand. In this way, good crops are raised. ^ 

Our object, in describing this method ot raising ^He crop, 
is. a belief that it is admirably calculated to des'trSy the 
growths of weeds, which are often dfitrimental to the 
growth of crops. 
< We believe that even the Canada thistle, or the wild 
I onion, may be destroyed in this way. By having such a 
discovering of earth laid over them, while in a state of vegeta- 
tion, they become smothered, as it were; they die for want 
of that portion of air which is esseniiul to their ^existence. 
See further, V^eeds. .' 

We would also inention, that this method ot raising, po- 
tatoes is adapted for any wet soil, as the trenches serve to 
lay the beds dry; and this mode of culture might often be 
used, to advantage, for the purpose of introducing good 
growths of grass into suph lands. 

We never should advise to feed Milch-cows with potatoes, 
either boiled or raw; as we have frequently known Cows to 
be greatly lessened in their quantity of milk, by being fed 
on this root. For fating of all kinds of cattle, they are very 
good, when steamboiled. 
See Steamboiler. 

I'otatoes, for the table ,in Spring, should have a scalding, 
after the frost is over ; and then be dried, arid laid away in 
ajchest or box, covered, so as to keep them from the air, 
Md kept in a dry place. ^' 

We ought, before closing this article, to notice tne me- 
thod, successfully pursued, as appears from the Memoirs 
of the Philadelphia Agricultural Society, ot raising potatoes. 



304 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

and Indian corn^^ogeiher,^^h alternate rows, or drills. The 
jtBvantages of this mode of culture would seem fo be tH^se: 
Indian corn, in order to afford the greatest quantity of 
ears, requires to stand more widely separated, than it is 
when ,|a|)wn in the usual way j whileV at the same time, 
other ^fl&nts, of more humble growth, may bt raised in 
the intervals, without essential injury to the growth of the 
^corni ■' ':. - ■ '"-"'" ^ 

It.womd seem, that as much as nearly one-fourth of ad- 
ditional aggregate product may, in this \^^;| be rfi^ed from 
any given quantity of ground. 

Before closing this article, some notice should be taken 
of thp sweet-potato©, which Js culttvat^ in the more south- 
erly~ States. 

It delights in a mellow sandy soil, and the richer the bet- 
ter.' T^e potatoes prepared for seed at^ previously raised 
in^he tollowyjg manner: ' 

A piece of ground is properly mellowed with the plough, 
and is then thrown up in ridges by two furrows backed to- 
gether,, at the distance of about three feet apart. These 
ridges ktie then cut crosswise, with a corner of the hoe, at 
the distance of about fourteen inches. Pieces of the vines 
of the growing cwjp of this root are then taken, of about 
a foot in length, and laid in the places thus cut down, with 
4heir lengths acrosrS the ridges, and they are then covered 
sufficient Jy deep, with the hoe. 

' Fron» ?hese layers, roots and branches will grow; and in 
the Fall a crop of potatoes will be produced, of about a 
fourth of the usual size. These are to be dug, and laid 
away in moist s^nd, before they have dr)ed ; and the next 
Spring are to be used as seed for the nesU crop. 

The seed crop, while growing, is, to be kept clear of 
weeds^ like other hoed crops. 

W^ will next speak of the crop that is to be raised from 
the seed-potatoes. 

The ground is to be mellowed with the plough and the 
harrow, in the §igringi and then tht , seed- potatoes are to be 
cut in two or three pieces each, and laid along on the sur- 
face, at the distance of about ten inches from -each other, in 
strait rows or drills, wTiich may be about three feet apart; 
and then a furrow is to be Ihrown over them from e^ch 
side, which cotnpletes the operation of planting. 

Whatever maniiire is to be applied to |he crop, is first to 
be laid along where the drills of potatoes are to be laidg. 
FresH barn-dung will be found as suitable for this crop, ^ 
for the common sort of potatoes. The crop, while grow- 
ing, is to be kept clear of weeds, with the| plough and 
hoe. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. m * 

Perhaps, however, it may be found that the method above 
recommended, for cultivating the connmoii potatoe, will be 
found equally advantageous and suitably tor growing the 
sweet; though that mode of culture is quite different, from 
that which is commonly pursued.* ^v 

The gathering and saving of the crop is similar t^hat of . 
the common sort. 

The product of the ^ect- potatoe, when grown in the# 
climate of the Carolinas, or farth^er south, is about the same 
of that of the cotpmon sort, in the same climates ; but, as 
the former contains most saccharine matter, it would see na 
best ad'.pted for fating cattle, and of course entitledL to a 
preference, in such climates, for that purpose. ' 

Its nutrimenial qualities, like those of the other, ate 
greatly increased by steariiboiling. *' .. 

We Lieiieve the product of this root mi^ljjt:^ be made 
much more considerable than it usually isj|^ were the 
grounds in which it is commonly raised restorea to a proper, 
state of fertility, and suitable quantities of manure applied 
to the crop, while growing. 

There <are several varieties of this root. Most probably 
its growth might be increased by the application of gypsum, 
in a manner similar to thai directed for tl^(;ommon sort. 

/It is said, that the Hcligohnd bean rnay 'be raised in 
consideiabit quantities, in the drills of potatoes, without 
essentjalf/ injuring their growth. 

m ' 

^ POULTRY. Mf. Wakejield^^ a spirited Farmer near 
Liverpool, say the ..GompiKrs oi \The Comfilepe Grazier,* 
keeps a large stock, of poultry ift the same enclosure, with 
singular success. He has nearly , an acre enclosed with a 
clo^ slab-fence, about seven feet high: The top of the' 
fence is every where sharp-pointed, like pickets, though 
perhaps^this is not necessary. Wunin this enclosure are 
put up^ght small sheds, well secured from rain, how- 
ever, for the different kinds of poultry, and it is supplied 
with a small stream of water. Tiie poulry are regularly- 
fed three times a day with boiled potatoes, which is their 
only food, exce^|^!^ what grass may grow within the en- . 
closure. ^ \ 

The dung of the poultry, which is exceedingly rich, is 
carefully saved for use; and the turf of the enplosure is oc- 
casionally pared off for mixing with coniposts? 

It would seem that, in the vicinity of large tdwns parti- 
CM^lv, this might be made a profiiable employment. But * 
it IS believed, that Uj^ better way would be to keep the 
different kinds pf poultry separate, SsMh/y are not apt to 
agtee well together. Something shall now be said of each 
sort sepai-ately. -,, 



SD6 PARMiel^ ASSISTANT. 

^ Of the Dunghill-foivlsy as they are usually called, there 
are various breeds, which it is perhaps unf.ecessiijry to de- 
signate. Wn<in well kept, a good Hen will lay from one 
hundfe^ and filty i<i two tjundred eggs in a season, whicli 
may b^aj least considered worth a cent each. It her eggs 
be noi taken from her, she will bring forth three broods in 
^a year, it well kept, and each bpc^od may be estimated at, 
say, eiijbt g;rown Chickens * 

GuiTiea-foivlsj also, lay many eggs in the course of the 
season; but as they are naturally fond of wandering away, 
apd laying them where they am not easily to be found, it is 
not probable ihey could be confined lo an enclosure like the 
one in question. -jTheir flesh is very good. 

The youiig;^^'ood ot^Turkies might, probably, be most ad- 
vavi. igeousty^brought forth in an enclosure like this, andj 
J after (luy nad acquired sufficient strength, let go abroad to 
«hii\ lor ihfcm'-clves. 

'The Black-turkey is the most hardy. The young of this 
fowl are tender and apt to die. The Swedish method of 
making them hardy is, to take them as soon as they ^re 
hatched^' or as soon thereafter as they are found, atiid plunge 
them in cold wateV, and force each one to swallow a 
pepper-corn. .^ ^ * 

After this, they are subject to another fatal malady which 
must be removed. In order to this, when any of them are 
foSnd drooping, pull out such feathers of the tail as are 
filled with blood, and the Chicken will presently recover. ¥ 

This fowl is profiiable to raise in many situations. They 
are also of?i;reat use in destroying Insects, particularly 
grasshopers. '^ 

The Turkey derives its name from the country whence it 
was originally imported. It appears, however, to be? the 
"same with that which runs wild in the interior of our 
Country; ^ ■:^- 

Of G^fse there are two sorts, the wild anH the tame. In 

general, they breed but once a year, but frequently twice, 

if we'll kept. iThree Geese should be alloted to one G.^nder; 

for, it the number b& increased, the eggs will usually be 

' rendered abortive. About twelve or thirteen eggs are 

enough for a \iling. While brooding, the Goose should 

have corn and water placed by her, and the Gander should 

^ at this time=?)shave frt e access to: guard her. The nest 

should be sufficiently high round the sides to prevent the 

,, eggs from rollii g out, as they are turned by the Go^e 

* every day It Is well also to break the egg slightly, war 

the beak of the.>y(^i:^ Gosling, wHin they are about to 

make their way outr ' C 

Geese are particularlv profit^e for their feathers ; anA 
although the plucking of theirv'fo •ften) as is practised by 



FAllMER^S ASSISTANT: 3.07 

some, appears barbarous ;; yet it is fouad that they thrive 
better by repeated pluc kings, than where they are pcrmited 
to shed their feathers in the natural way, which is ai the 
time of moulimg. 

In Lincoln county (Greatbritain) where they are raised 
in th6" greatest nujTcibers,>tbey are plucked five times a yearj 
the first at Ladyday, fof feathers and quiUs, and four times 
afterwards, between ttiai and Michaelmas, for feathers only. 

Tame ducks, of which there are varieties, are the same 
a&;the wild. They begin to lay early, and afford a consider-^ 
able number of eggs, which are nearly as good as those of'^ 
Dunghill-fowls. About twelve is enough for a Duck to sit 
•n. Ducks are greedy feeders; but not nice, as to ih«iir 
food. They are quickly fated on animal food^pf. which ihey 
are fond, and tlieir flesh then tastes like that '^f the Wild- 
duck. They are useful in turnipfields, while^ the young 
plants are liable to be preyed on by insects. 

Poultry is most easily fated when kept in a dark place; 
and boiled grain is generally best for the purpose of'%iing, 

y? ■■■"■': W ' 

PUMPKIN. A new, and very liirge, species of the 
pumpkin has lately been cultivated in this part of the coun- 
try, which promises to be very profitable for cultivation, if 
it can be naturalized toour climate. At present, it requires ' 
early planting, in order to ripen it. Upwards of five hun- 
dred pounds of this pumpkin may be readUy raised from one. 
seed. .' ,: ■■^'V}:<i^ 

Allowing even every square rod of ground planted with 
it to yield this amount, the product of an acre would be 
forty tons; a greater and more valuable product, for the 
pappose of feedihg and fating cattle, during the Fall, and 
begining of Winter, than can be raised, from the same 
groun4,.of any kind of cabbage, or root, whatever; at the 
same time, it can be raised with not more than half the 
trouble and expense, to the acre, which the raising of cab- 
bages, and roots, require. Time, however,, must test the 
value of this new plant, which, from present appearances, 
bids fair to be a great acquisition to the Country, 

Pumpkins are probably nearly, or quite, as valuable as 
the same weight of inost kinds of roots, for the purpose of 
feeding Milch-cows, and- fating. cattle ; and as they are easi- 
ly raised, and still easier gathered, it would seem that rais-* 
<4[^, even the common kind, might be made profitable, 
wfjn raising a crop, the hills should probably stand about 
seven feet apart ; ^d, though the crop would require as 
much ploug^ng as other hoed crops, yet the expense of 
hoeing would be but frifliqgi 

Th^ccop would not ^ half so expensive to raise, and 
gaiherij^s a crop of Indian corn ; it would exhalist the soil 



308 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 



* 



but little; and it would be a fine'" preparative for wheat, as 
the g^^ound coPuld be cleared of the crop sufficiently early 
for siting thai grain. 

Ii ^believed that an act*e, properly cultivated, would 
yield as much as ten tons of even the common feind of 
f'pumpkn ; md chat these would be' found worth as much .as 
sixteen ctius per hundred, tor the purpose of feeding and 
fating catile. * 

It^ese estimates are correct, it would seem that a c^p*^ 
Ik of pumpkins, even ot the knid last mentioned, would be 
found as profirable, and as suitable to precede a crop of 
wheat, as ihfe-turnip crop is found to be in some parts of 
Grealbritain^"^ "* . ^ 

j«* Tnis vvodl'o seem to be a matter well worth the attention 
of the Farmer: If he can realize such profits from those 
^ottnds, .upon which he usually bestows a kind of Summer- 
fallowing for wheat, he will derive a handsome profit where 
j(t present he has none; and he would probably find his 
grounS^^. better order in the Fall, for sowing ^ wheat, 
.than by the slight jg|;uiLure of fallowing, which is usually 
given to the soil for raising that crop. 

In ihis case, however, the ground should be broke up in 
the latter end of the Fall precedmg, and cross-ploughed 
just before planting the crop; vjfhich should be planted' 
early, in order to be sooner out of the way for sowin'g thei^ 
' wheat in the Fall. 

The pumpkin-crop would requiVe two ploughings, and 
^wo hoeings, while growiprg; and another good ploughing 
would then be requisite to fit the ground for the reception 
of the wheat. The intervention, therefore, of the crop of 
pbmpkins would require the two ploughings, which are re- 
quisite for It while growing, more than is usually.given to 
► land when Summer-fallowed in the usual way., By breaking 
up the ground in the Fall preceding, the loss of some 
Spring-pasture would also be incured. 

Let us now compute the expense of raising, and gather- 
ing, an acre of pumpkins; and then the clear profits of the 
crop will more readily, appear. 

' CROP, DR, Doh.Cts. 

For planting, half a days lab.or -. 50 
♦ Two ploughings, half a days 'l^bor each time, with 

one Horse and plough > 2 jj^ 

Two hoeings, one days labor # 1 f|p 

Gathering, one days labor, with Horses and wagon 2 50 

Cleahng the g^und ^ .||ie vines, half a^ays laja^r 50 

Seed ;■ m 25, 

^ jILoss of Spring'.pasture >- • 1 

Hent »i"d^e ground ' 3 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 309 

*:; CR. \ bols.Ct^ 

By ten tons of pumpkins, atiixteen cents per hundred 32 \ 
Clear profits of the crop " 21 25 

Appose it would be found necessary to expend three 
dollars more, in manuring for the crop, in the hills, betorc 
planting, in order to raise the quantity above stated; mere 
would then remain eighteen dollars and twenty five cents of 
clear profit to the acre ; an amount of profit which farmers 
inthis Country do but seldom realize. # . 

%f the above calculations should be found correct; andj|, 
this can be easily ascertained by experiment; let the Farm-*" 
er pursue this system of culture, by having'^ his pumpkin- 
crop to precede his crop of wheat, instead of the present 
method ot Summer-fallowing; let him apply his. pumpkins 
to feeding and fating bf cattle ; and in this way he will find 
that his ten-acre field will give^ him one hundred. and eighty 
dollars, of clear profit, mor-e than he derives from it by his 
present mode of culture, in raising his crop ot wneat. And, 
this caJiiuiatiop being founded on what it is supposed may 
be derived from the common pumpkin, it is onljrnecessary 
to add, that, if the kind first mentioned should answer ihe 
expectations formed of it, the clear profits it will afford will 
probably be thre^ or foijrtold greater. , 

It is believed that pumpkins are considerably improved, 
as an article of food, for fating of Swine particularly, by 
being steamboiled,; and perhaps the same may bts observed 
of them, when used for fating Neat-cattle. 

As they contain a large portion of saccharine matter, they 
would, no doubt,, afford considerable of molasses, or of ardent 
fflfeits, wheni distiled. It is, most probably, their highly- 
saccharine quality which gives them a superiority for the 
purpose of fating, 

PuiApkins ^ill grow well on every kind of soil that is fit 
for hoed cr(5ps, and the richer the b.etter. In raising thebi, 
^it is usual to mix them with the crop of Indian corn: But 
it is doubtful whether any thing is ever gained by raising 
two growing crops together. Let, the crop be planted by 
itself; and in planting give the hills plenty of seeds, in or- 
der that if some of the young plants should be destroyed by ' 
insects there might still be enough left. 

See Insec-^, for an easyj method of keeping them frori> 
lants of this aescription. ^ ^ •• 

Pumpkins are excelent for fating Horses. ""They, how- 
ever, do not reliSj^ them at first; and therefore must be 
kept irojn feeding, till they are hungry, befolfe the pump- 
kins are dlfered to them ; and let a little salt be first 
spri^j^led on this food^lwhen they will soon grow fond of 
it, aiilfeeat it readily, without salt. ' * 



€ 



3iq. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

Pumpkins may be kept in a cellAr, for" this purpose^ a 
considerable partot. the Winter; but the cellar must not 
be too warm ; and care mus.t -be uken not to break off 
th«? stems of pujnpkins, but leave these attached, to item; 
otaerwise they will soon commence roting, at the placps 
where the stems are broken off. ' 

PYRITES. §ee Manure?. 



QUINCETREE (Pyrus'^X^ydonia) This tree is easily 
raised from layers or eatings.^ A moist soil suits it best. 
Let th&cutings be planted early in the Spring, and watered 
''^"^ in dry wai'm weather. The trees require but littl^'^runing, 
except to keep them clear of suckers, dead and cross limbs; 
and wtiere they have too many luxuriant upright sh^ptS) in 
the top, these should be taken out. ^ 

Mr. Forsyth says, they are apt tp have^rougti bark, and 
to be barkbound. In this case, he directs to shave off the 
rough bark, scarify them, and then to brush them over with 
his coniposition. , .5 '^^ 

He says, they should be planted at some distance from 
apple and pcartrees, lest their farina shotild mix, which 
will cause the apples and pears to degenerate. \.^i 

Mr. Matlack, of Philadelphia, says that quinces afford a 
liquor but little, if any, inferior to the best grape. If this 
be correct, would not the, extensive culture of this' *ree be 
* found very pr(;fitable ? 

See Nursery, pRUiiT-TREEs, Transplanting, ^c. 



RABBITS. *In some situations, these animals may bfe" 
kept to advantage, as they muhiply ea^ceedingly, and re- 
quire no tioiible in brihging up. They dcliglfein«he sides 
of sandy hills, which are generally Ui^[>todu€tive when till- 
ed ; but level ground is improper M): thum. The fui%f the 



tARMER'& ASSISTANT.' 3U 

♦*• 
Rabbit is worth thrice the value of the carcase. Therefore, 
supposing the Rabbit to consume a quantity of food in pro- 
ponion to its carcase, it is a species of stock neatly three 
times as valuible as either cattle or Sht€5p. 

* Rabbit-warrens ought to be enclosed with a stone or sod 
walli and at their first stocking it will be necessary to form 
burrc^s for them, until they have time to make ihem for 
themselves. Boring the ground horizontally with a large 
aug^ur is, perhaps, the best method that can be practised. 
E.'.gles, kjtes, and other birds of prey, as well as cats, wea- 
sa^y and polecats, are great enemies of Rabbits. The Nor- 
ffl« Warreners catch the birds by traps placed on the ^opjk 
of stumps or trees, or artificial hillocks of conical form, ori^*i^ 
which they naturally alight.* Encijclo/i. ,^ . 

Would not the rearing of R^tbbits be profitable ip this 
Country ? We have no eagles or kites to molefst them ; 
they breed very rapidly; their food is che.^ip and easily pro- 
;3irided. A fence to enclose a warren can be^inade of boards, 
Sl^ no great expense, which will keep out cats atia polecats; 
and as for weas.els, we have but very few of- thei#in^s 
Countrjil- ; ^_,^' ^^ -^ 

,,- , . ^ t being liable to b# 

caten%y worms, the toliowirig method is recommended for 
raising them: Take equal quantities of buckwheaibran, 
and fresh horsedung, and mix them well and plentifully in . m 
the ground by diging. Suddenly after this a grea,t ferment- 
ation will be produced, and numbers of toadstools will start ^ 
up in forty- eigltt houi^. Dig the ground over agairh and 
sow the seed^ and the radishes will grow with great rapidity 
ai|d be free from the attacks of insectft. They will grow 
Jl^'commonly large. Buckwheat-bran is an excelent manure 
of itself. , 

*^ 
RATS. These are unprofitable for the Farmer to main- * 

tain, and thie sooner W disposes of them the better. For 
, this purpose, the most effeetual method is to give them 
arsenic. Set some plates where the Rirs frequent, with a - 
little wheat flour put into them j.^let chtm ^ait on this for *" 
two or three nights ; then add a'little arsenic to the flour, 
mix it well together, and placfe it as before, and they will 
eat it very readily, which will |oon dispatch them. When 



this dose is administered, care %3uld be taken to cover th^ 
«jk,in ilk pans ana whatever else they can drink at, as the arse- 
^Imc occasions a burning thirst, which indices them' tQ go in 



quest of whatever^will quench it. Perhaps it would be as^» 
well ta s^ some water fer ^em to drie^. at profryeV 
places. ^ ,: ^ 



312 FARMER'*. ASSIST ANIt 

A trap, that is much recommended, for catching Rats, is 
made as follows : Take a barrel, or keg, with one head outs 
put in it water enough to cover the bottom about two inches 
deep; in the middle^ of this set a piece of brick or stone; 
cover the head of th6 Cask with a piece of smooth parch- 
ment; or, perhaps, smooth stiff paper will answer; in the 
centre of this cut two slits about six inches long, at%,right 
angles, so as to form a cross ; immediately over this suspend 
the best kind of bait for Rats, placed sufficiently high. 

When the Rat comes to take the bait, in reaching up to 
it he slips into the hole, by the four corners of rhe parch- 
dbient or pap6r giving way. He then gets upon the brick^fei 
^^Rie middle of the water, and begins to utter cries of dis- 
tress. This brings others to him, who fall in the same 
mannfr. Presently they begin to fight for the possession of 
the brick, Jftid the noise of this brings others, who fall in 
like manner ; and thus all within hearing of this scene of 
confusion follow on and share the same fate. ^ 

Another good metho^ is, by suitable baits to draw thena' 
into a targe bpx, or cage, by means of an entrance guarded 
,. witlftin with sjiarp- pointed wires, similar to thos&j^of the 
mousecage. 

While the Farmer% divesti^ hijnself of his |lats, let 
him not neglect his Micfe; for th^, too, a^e qtiiie e^JUnsive 
in keeping. . '^ 

RED-TOP. . See Grasses. 

RICE (Oriza Saliva J This plaat may be ^considered in 
some degree amphibious | for, after it has afttained some 
height, the ground- growing it may be occasionally flooded 
with water, till the crop comes to maturity. In this manner 
it is raised in the Southern States; the overflowing of tjje 
.ground being merely for the purpose of saving the labor 
necessary to be performed in the ploughings and hoeings 
the crops requires, when not thus irrigated. <' 

It will, however, ■ grow very weH on dry lands, if they are 
sufficiently rich. * It has beeh successfully raised, by Mr. * 
Boardman^ on dry sandy land at Annapolis, in Maryland, as 
we find stated ^n the Dpmestic Encyclopedia, published ia 
Philadelphia. ^ 

We mention this fact for two purposes ; first, to observe 
that the crop does not^reqi^ife irrigation; and .that although, 
by this operation, thelfe imy be a saving of -tabor, still a 
very great loss is Uiereby incured, in regard to health, audi 
^of course enjdyment; and^, second, that although this plant 
is a native oL|he tropics, still it is capable of becoming na- 
turalized to TOoler and shorter Summers. ^ *" 

* -If 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 313 

There seems, indeed, a natural disposition in plants to 
acconnmodate themselves to the climate in which they yre 
cultivuted If they have been long ^own in warm and 
lengthy Summers, their growth, and the time required for 
it, becom.e proportionately increased, and vice versa, when 
gradually accustomed to cooler and shorter bummers 

Calculating, therefore, on this disposition of plants, we 
think it not improbable that the culture ot rice may gradu- 
ally work its way into more northerly climates, till it will 
be found practicable to mature the crop in almost every 
pj/ft of the United States; and although the pUnt willbe^ 
found diminished in size, as it is grown farther to the 
north; yet, as on that account it will admit of Beir^ planted 
more closely, it will probably suffer no diminution of its 
product in grain. 

We believe that almost every kind of soil is fited for the 
growth of rice, that is sufficiently moist and rich. We 
bave even seen it flourish on a moist «andy loam, in Nurth- 
carolina. ^ * 

Early in the Spring, the ground is to beiited with the 
plough for the^ecepiion of the seed, |^hich is to be drilled 
in, in rows, at the distancg^of about twenty-seven inches 
apart. 'When the young plants have acquired a suitable 
height, the weeds are to be eradicated from the crop with 
the plough, or with a small harrow, to be guided by hand! 
behind, run twice between the rows, and the worlfiisvfhl 
completed with the hoe, and perhaps some hand-weeding. 

In due season, after this, the water is to be occiasionally 
let on the ground, for the purpose of killing the weeds aifid 
grass; and then to be let off again, in w^jw" that the crop 
m^have such further ploughing and hoeing as may be ne- 
cessary. If water is not to be used> the growing crop is to 
be kept clear of weeds, like other hoed crops, till the 
ground becojO^^s sufficiently shaded to prevent any further 
trouble from mfem. 

The grain will be found sufficiently ripened, while the 
stalks are still green ; and on this account they are valua- 
ble, as a substitute for hay If t^ crop be flooded, the 
water is to be let off in due season, so that the ground can 
be laid sufficiently dry before harvestiilg. la regard to this 
operation, we will mereljt^ observq, that he who understands 
the manner of harvesting wheat, ^l^e,^arley, or oats need 
be at no loss as to the best methoa of gathering this crop; 
remembering, however, that the straw shouid b^ sufficiently 
dried before threshing, or storing the crop away. 

The separatjng of the grain tiom the straw ni£^ no doubt, 
be advantageously done with a threshing-macjjpint j or it may 
be performed in any of the other methods of threshmg. 
Sec. Thrsshing. '^^ 

# 40 ^ 



514 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

After the grain is taken from the straw, and winnowedg 
the hull is taken off, by a mill made for the purpose, which 
fits the lajrain for mS^rket. 

Lands prepared for raisins: rice, by flooding:, are such as 

were originally swamps, or flu natural meadows. They are 

prepared tor receiving and re.iainins]: the water, in a m-mner 

similar to that for improvnur land by wUrfiing. as it is called. 

See Improvement of Land 

If the land is naturally loo wet for cultivating: rice, it is to 
be laid drier, by a ditch, of sufficient depth, dug: round the 
Afield, with The earth thrown on the outer sides; and ifffis 
canh will serve to form the bank for retaining the waters, 
■when the fielij- is to be fl >oded, Smulkr ditches may also 
be carried across the fi^ld, into the outer ditch, for the 
purpose* ol*' laying the field drier, if it be naturally very 
moist. ,^ 

A rice-field* thus prepared will bear crops for many years, 



without any sensible diminution of the fertiluy of the soil; 
particularly *if it be naturally rich, or if it be assisted by 
some sedimetit of the waters with which it is flooded. 

The great objection to flooding fir Ids, d(!ri?ing the heat 
*of Summer, is the prevalence okmalignant fevers which this 
practice occasions. Whatever advantages the fields derive 
from flooding, in repairing that exhaustion of the soil which 
yi^rly croping must occasion, might be obtained with equal 
eislfe by le ting on the waters during the Winter season, or 
when they have most sediment to deposit. 

Whether, then, the ben* fit to be derived in the saving of 
laifeor, by flooding in Summer, is more than sufficient to 
overbalance the ^ll juat mentioned, which is thus occasion- 
ed, may perhaps be very doubtful; and perhaps it may , be 
a matter of less doubt, whether it would not ultimately be 
more beneficial to convert all the rice lands into grass- 
grounds, for feeding and soiling cattle^ by^^cking them 
with the best grasses ^^' 

See Grasses Soiling, &c. 

The Southern States have eminent advantages, if rightly 
improved, for raising aspat numbers of cattle, and where 
these greatly abound iheTands may be increasing in fertility, 
and, of course, wealth; while the country that has few or no 
cattle must, sooner or later, exhibit a very different ap- 
pearance. ^ n 

Rice is not a very exhausting crop, owing, no doubt, ta 
its being fit^ to ,» harvest while the stalks are still green. 
When grown on uplands, the growth of the crop might 
perhaps b©i#ery considerably assisted by the use of gypsum, 
applied in tne i|5ual way to the grounH ; or to roll the seeds 
in, after being soaked in some lertihzing liquor: And if 
such upland were sufficiently rich, we can see no reason 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 3U 

why the crop mighi noi be successtully raised, by sowing 
thfc seed in iht broadcast way; especiiiily it ihe crop were 
once gone over wi h ihe hoi, tor ihe^purpose ot thining 
the pianis where ih<r> niiglu stand too closely, as well as 
for eradicating the first growth ol weeds, 

RIDGLING. A name given to a half-castrated animal. 
A Hjrse ot this description is as troublesome as a Sialiion, 
and yet not fi to be relied on as one. * A ridjgling Hog 
(says Mr. Dtane) will never be tat, nor grow so Urge a^ a 
Burrow, tul nis castration be compltudi as it may be> by 
maku»g an opening in the beliy, wnen the case is most 
difficult. They should either be killed young,^pr completely 
castrated. The flesh ot a ricigling Pig is good ; but that of 
an old one, brawny and disagreeaOle.* 

ROLLER AND ROLLING. The roller is useful in 
smooihiijg lae suruce ot meadows that have tjjbome un- 
even, and tor passing over grounds newly sown willJ^grain, 
or that are to be laid down to grass. They are further^ 
usetul in Dre^Kmg the lumps ot baked earth in a clay-soil 5 
bui, tor this purpose, a roller filled with iron spikes has 
been pi'elered bj- some. * 
Hee Spiky roller. 

The use ot me lolicr on grounds sowed with different 
kinds ot gram, particularly builty, which is dry ai^d huslty, 
is to CdUse the mould to enclose the seeds; much t)! wnich, 
by lying m cavuies that soon become dried, would other- 
Wise tail ot vegetaiiug. li is also usetul in light dry soils, 
for preventing their moisture trom eva^o^aling too easily. 
Peruaps the roller is as useiul tor this "purpose as for any 
other, in regard to its application to crops ot grain. It is 
also useful in depriving certain in&ects of their hiding-places 
in the cavities ol the soil 

The rollil|ii!Ot land, m tillage, should be done when the 
ground is sodry that it will not stick to the roller; and in 
grass-lands, it shoUW be performed in the Spring, when 
the ground is soft and wet. 

A wooden roller should be abto; twenty inches or two 
feet in diameter, and about six feei in length. It should be 
round and of an uniform surface. Where the roller is made 
of stone, it should be about tourte&n inches in diameter, and 
of the length aoove mentioned. * 4 

ROOTS. The most essential divisions of these, are 
those of the ic/z, the bulbous^ and the ^6roMs kinds. The 
carrot, parsnip, beet, clover. Sec. are taprooiea; the pota- 
toe, onion, turnip, &c. arc bullous ; the plants of wheat, 
barley, oats, herdsgrass, &c. have fibrous roots., ^ taproots 



% 



3ie rARMER»s ASSISTANT. 

have also fibrous roots, which, hke all others of that kind^ 
extend horizontally, tar in every direction, and become so 
fine that they are .imperceptible to the naked eye. The 
bulbous have also such fibrous roots, and one kind, the 
turnip, has also a taproot in addition to its fibrous rootSi 
Trees have also tap and fibrous roots. 

Some taproots will extent downward, as far as they can 
find the soil sufficiently opened to receive them. We have 
known ari^ instance of a parsnip taken from the ground, 
three feet in length. This shows the necessity of havmg 
the soil deeply mellowed for taproot;* ; and the fibrous roots 
extending horizontally so far in every direction, where they 
can find mellow earth to penetrate, shows the necessity of 
havmg the ground well mellowed to a sufficient depth to 
receive them. 

RUNET, OR RENET- A good method of making this 
is as folIci3»v!4: Take the maw of the Calf; empty it of its 
curd i^ wash it ; soak it in strong brine till it is well salted ; 
dry it on bows made for the purpose; then take two 
'quarts of strong brine that will bear an egg, blood-warm, 
and let the maw steep in this twenty-four hours, when the 
liquor will be fi[ for use; bottle it up, and cork it tight, and 
it will keep for a twelvemonth. About a teacup-full will be 
sufficient for ten Cows. Some direct spices, and a lemon 
^ll^ed, tp be put into this liquor. 

'^notirlr method is, to take the maw, emptied as before, 
and fill it with an artificial curd made of new cream ; into 
which put three eggs beat fine ; a nutmeg grated fine ; and 
three teacup-full^ pi fine salt; mix the mass well together; 
tie up the mouth'^'df the bag; lay ii under a strong brine for 
three days, turning it over daily ; then hang it up in a dry 
cool place for six weeks, when it will be fit for use. When 
used, it is, first to be dissolved in warm waten 

The acid contained in the maw is very J^ to become 
rancid, and to putrify, if a sufficiency of salt be not applied 2 
care must therefore be taken to prevent this, by a due sup- 
ply of this article. No good cheese can be made, unless 
the runet be good. ^ 

The runetbag may also be salfed and dried, as before di- 
rected, and pieces of it occasionally used, by being previous- 
ly soaked in warm water, and a quantity of this water used, 
in proportion to the quat^ity of milk to be turned. 

In Holland, the Cheesemakers use no runet; but, instead 
of this, they use a small portion of spirit of seasali (muria- 
tic acid) for forming the curd. This gives the chet se a 
taste somewhat different from that made with runet. The 
acid should probably be Jiluted. The quantity, which is 
just suQicientj may be ascertained by a few experimentSo 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 317 



RYE (Secale.) There is but one kind of rye; but this 
may ot made either Winier-rye, or Sprm^-ryc, by gradually 
habituating it to diflferent times ot ^sowing. Take VVinier- 
rye, lor instance, and sow it laier and later, each Fall, and 
it may at length be sown in the Spring ; and thtn it be- 
comtb Spring- rye. 

On the contrary, sow Spring rye very late m the i-all, at 
first, and you may gradually sow it earlier each-mcceeding 
year, until it may even be sown in May, and used the fiist 
season tor pasture, or mowing, and then grown to pertec- 
tion the second year. 

Soils ot a Sandy or gravelly texture are the most natural 
for rye. Almost every kind of dry soil is more or less 
suif-ed to its growth; it vvill even grow tolerably well in 
bog-meadows, when laid sufficiently dry. It will produce ^ 
considerably on the poorest soils;' and prodigious crops of 
it may be raised on such as are made very rich,J''as may be 
seen trom a case reported by Mr. V Homme dieu, ■* 

A Neighbor of his manured tweuiy square rods of ground 
with li)ur thousand Monhaddan fiah, and sowed it with rye*. 
In the Spring, it was twice successively eaten off, close to 
the ground, by Sheep breaking m, after it had acquired a 
height of nine inches the first time, and six inches ihe lat- 
ter. These cropings, however, only served to makeit 
grow thicker and stronger than before ; and, when har^||p- 
ed, it produced sixteen bushels, or, at the rate of one hun- 
dred and twenty-eight bushels to the acre; giving to the 
Owner, according to the calculation of Mr. V Homme dieu^ 
at the rate of eighty-five dollars to the ac|e» of clear profit. 
, H| supposes, however, that the crop would have been 
entirely lost, had it not been twice eaten off by the Sheep. 
It is said that prodigious crops of wheat may be raised in 
the same m^inncr. , 

Rye IS si^ect to rust, but seldom or never to smut ; nor, 
indeed, lo any other disease that we know of, in this Coun- 
try. Mr jDw ^ame/ makes mention of a disease it is subject 
to in France, called the sfiur^ which causes a dry gangrene 
in the extreme parts of the bodies of those who eat the 
grain thus diseased ; so that these parts at length fall off, 
almost without pain. 

' The Hotel Dieu, at Orleans (says this Author) has had 
many ot these miserable Objects, who had not any thing 
more remaining than the bare trunk of the body ; and yet 
lived, in that condition, many days.' 

Tne grains thus diseased are larger than the rest, mostly 
crooked, bitter to the taste, rough, deeply furrowed from 
end to end, and project con|Merably beyond their husks. 
It is not every year, however, xnat the spur produces these 



318 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

effects in that Couniry ; and it the grain be kept some con- 
siderable length ot lime, beiore it is eaten, it will not 
prove hurtful. 

We notice this disease of rye, in order that, if similar 
eff^^cts should ever be produced from it here, the cause of 
any such malady, and the means of obviaiing it, may be 
more readily utidersiood. 

Rye may be raised tor many years in succession on the 
same gr^^pfd, without materiuliy exhausting the soil, parti- 
cularly if it be perfectly suitable to the growth ot this grain; 
and provided, also, that the stubble be turned under imme- 
diately after taking off the crop: But where the ground is 
6uff' red to remain unploughed, till the stubble has become 
divested of all its moisture, and the seeds of the weed;s 
have ripened, the successive crops will gradually lessen in 
% product, and the weeds will increase. 

We would, however," by no means recommend such a 
mode of cCiUure, unless as much as twenty five bushels, or 
mdle, of this grain could be yearly had from the acre; as 
such a yearly product would probably afford a clear profit, 
to the acre, of half that number of bushels; and such a pro- 
fit, in some of the lighter, and in some of the harder, kinds 
of soils, is not to be despised. 

As the soil most suitable for rye is usually that which is 
most benefited by the use of gypsum, it would be much the 
tMer plan, instead of successive crops of Winter-rye, to 
sow this grain, and Spring-rye, alternately, in order that the 
ground might, every other year, be enriched by the appli- 
cation of this manure. 

The growing crop of rye receives no benefit from the ap- 
plication of this manure; bu' ii quickly covers the g^pjnd 
with a fine sward of white-clover; and, as soon as ground 
is thus swarded, it is in good condition for btaring any crop. 
Let the gypsum, therefore, be sown in the Spring, on the 
growing crop of Winter-rye ; and, by the middle of Octo- 
ber following, the ground will be covered with white clover; 
turn this sward over in the latter endiiof the Fall, and in 
the Spring sow a crop of Spring-rye ; and, as soon as this 
is taken off, turn the ground over again tor a crop of Win- 
ter-rye ; and in the Spring repeat the process of manuring 
with gypsum, as before, for a crop of Spring-rye, and thus 
proceed with these crops alternately. 

In this way, we will venture to say, that nearly double 
the amount ot grain might be obtained, in each crop; par- 
ticularly in the northerly part of our Couniry, where Spring- 
rye is nearly as productive as that ot Winter. 

In such a mode of culture, however, particular attention 
should be paid to turning ftftder the stubble of the crop of 



Spring-rye as quick as poSSlble, in order that the seeds of 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 319 

the growing: weeds be prevented from ripening, as well as 
for enabling other seeds, which may lie buried in the soil, 
to vegetate, and thus be destroyed by the after ploughing 
and harrowing for puting in the next crop. 

Many Farnners may have pieces of hard gravtlly, or very 
light sandy, soilj for which such a mode of culiure mi^ht 
probably be found as profiiible as any to which the land 
could be applied: But ot this, the judicious I^mer will 
be best enabled to judge, after obtaining a fuU^SPowiedge 
of what mode of culture is most profi able for his more ste- 
rile grounds; and, in order to this, he must estimate the 
expenses of puling in his crops; the clear profi s, after 
paying these expenses, and the rent of the land ; and, 
whether his lands are likely to become, eventually, more 
exhausted by such mode of culture, than by a change of 
crops, where grasses, suitable to the soil, should be cultivat- 
ed, during some seasons. 

See further. Change of Crops in regard to hard 
gravels, and Turnips ior light saudy lands. 

Where VVmter-rye is early sown, a bushel to the acre is 
probably sufficient ; but, of Spring-rye, a bushel and a half- 
to the acre, or perhaps more, should be sown. 

Rye, intendttd for family- use, should be harvested as 
early as the grain can be prevented from shrinking, and 
let lie on the ground a day or two, to harden. In thk 
way, the grain will make much whiter flour; though, pll? 
haps, the product will not be quite so heavy and bulky, as 
when left till fully ripened. Probably all that is gained by 
leting the grain fully ripen, before harvesting, is an addi- 
tional thickness of the skin; thereby increasing the quantity 
of bran, but not ol flour. 

Bread made entirely of rye is laxative, and good to pre- 
vent costiveness. Wheat, especially where the flour is very 
fine, has an -^opposite tendency. For most constitutions, 
therefore, bread made of equal parts of these grains is con- 
sidered the most conducive to health. Mixing some flour 
of Indian corn, with that of rye, will serve to prevent its 
damminess. 



SALSAFY ( Tragofiogon ) This foot is frequently called 
Vegetable Oyster^ on account o ^fc s having a resemblance, 
in flavor, to that of an oyster. When boiled, mashed, and 



32© FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

mixed with butter, and formed in shape of oysters, and then 
tried, it is frequently aiistaken for tried oysters. 

It requires a culture similvtr to that of carrots, Sec. The 
roots are to be dug in the Fall, and protected from the 
Winter-frost. Like all other roots, they are best preserved 
in moist sand. 

SALpSfe^ See Manures. 



SALTING OF MEAT. In packing^ down pork, sprinkle 
in wliiit is iquil to four quarts ol rock-salt to a barrel; then 
make a pickle, sufficient to cover all the meat, as siron? as 
it can be madt wih salt, and when cold pour it on When 
the pickle becomes considerably colored with the blood of 
the meat, draw it off, boil it, take off the scum, till it be- 
come clear, and apply it again. Repeat this, it the pickle 
again become colored too much, and add more fresh brine, 
if necessary. In this way, pork will keep sweet throughout 
the ensuing Summer, and will be free of rust. 

This method is also good for preserving beef, though the 
following is better: 

For a barrel of beef, says Mr. Deane, take four quarts of 
rock-salt pounded tine ; eight ounces of saltpetre, and five 
pounds of brown sugar; mix them well together, and with 
thgse ingredients pack the meat down very closely, so as 
that they will of themselves cover the whole with brine. 
The next Spring draw oflf the brine, clarity it, as before di- 
rected, adding a little salt to it, and apply it again, and the 
beef will keep very sweet and fine-tasted during the whole 
Summer following. 

This method of curing meat, it will be seen, is something^ 
similar to the best method of curing butter*, and it is also 
an excelent method for curing pot k and hams. The ham 
of some of the Southern States is allowed t^ be equal to 
that of Westphalia ; but, whether this be owifig to this me- 
thod of curing, to the climate, or to the manner of keeping 
Hogs there, is perhaps uncertain. When hams have been 
sufficiently cured in this, or any other way, they should bo 
smeared over with molasses; smoked sufficiently a»»d sud- 
denly; the quicker the better; and let them then be well 
sprinkled over with slaked lime, and put away in casks, 
filled with bran, to keep during the Summer. The hme 
will serve to keep all insects from them. 



SAND. See Earths and Manures. 

SAP. Plants derive their sap principally from the roots. 
Before it has entered the|j|||| it is called the food of filants. 
It is supposed to be absorbed by the capillary roots in the 



FARMER** ASSISTANT 2n 

form of vapor, which, beinpf ratified by the heat of .the 
atmosphere, ascends, and extcfds through all the prires 
of* the plant; and here is impt rcepiibly darried on that 
chemical process, which evetitually serves to bring it to 
perfection. 

SCRATCHES. This is a disease in the legs of Horses, 
occtsione^l by bad blood, or too 'hard bbor. Th^ sskin of. 
the Ie?s b comes craked Oj)cn, en)iting a rt dish-^cii^Ved hu» 
mor. To cure the disease, wash the cracks wirh^^dapsuds, 
and then rub them twice a day with ari ointment of hogs- 
lard, mixed with a little sublitnate mercury 

Another says that (his troublesome disorder may be ef- 
fectually cured^ by the application of as strong V solutionj 
of copperas in water, as can be made, and rubing the 'legs 
up and down, with a cob, each time. A few applications 
win be>sdfficient. 

SEEDS Matly seeds will retain their vegetative faculty 
for several y;ea% oth^.rs again cannot be ma^def to germinate 
after the first yeijr, unless uncommon pains be taken lor 
that purpose,^ ^^ " ' 

All seeds reqbire fresh air, and if long deprived of this 
they will los0: their vegeitaiive qtiriliiy If some kuids be- 
hiltied deeply -"under grotmdr however, they" will retain this 
.quality for twenty or thirty ^ears. 

V^ome seeds wtll ItQ a year, some two or three years, be- 
fore they will pome up; and for this reason, when seed^^ 
are brought from a distant Country ar^d sown, the ground 
should not be disiurbt^d during that length of time. 

Seeds of the dry kinds are best'^pveserved in their pods, 
or natural coverings; but those of all soft fruits, &c. should 
be taken out, cleansed, and dried. 

By experiments made by Mr ^Numbol^^ in 1793, it was 
found that seeds which re-quire thirty hours to gern)mate in 
common water, could be n'jade ro germinate in six hours ia 
oxygenated mtiriatic -acid gas ^ m'xed with water; and by' 
adding * the stimuUjs" of c«/o*7c (heat) to that ofrt^e oxygend, 
he was enabled still i*iore to accelerate tffe progress of 
vegetation.* He took' (he seeds bf garden-^cresses, peas/ 
French-beans, garden-lettuce, mignonette; ecjual quantities 
of which were thrown into pure water, and t'.e oxygenat'ecf 
muriatic acid, at a temperature of eighty-eight degrees Fah- 
renheit. Cresses exhibited germs. i» three hours, in this 
acj^; while none w^ere seen in the water, till the end 1^ 
twenty-six hours. ^;v. ^ # 

By means of tliis stimuUnt, se^^|g^ich were more than 
an hundred years old were made Sp^^etate; as were othet 
aeeds which hud been kept for thirty years, at. the botanical 

41 



322 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

garden at Vienna, which had tesisted every other means 
used for thai purpose. ^ ^ « 

The application oi this may be found useful in planliilEg 
Indian corn, as it will be sooner out of the way of birds and- 
squirrels; and, when the first planting has failed, or when 
birds, &c. have pulled up the Corn, this method would 
greatly accelerate the growrh of a second planting. It is 
also useful for many kinds of garden- seeds^ which have been 
kept over one year. Probably, the seeds ot the American 
thorn might, also, in this way, be made to vegetate readily, 
and that hempseed mighty thus be made to grow^ after the 
first year. > 

Another method of making old seeds germinate, more 
readily, is, io immerse them in water, nearly boiling hot| 
for the space of half a minute ; then sudddhly cool them by 
exposure to the air, and sow them when the soil is well 
warmed by the'sun It sown, however, when the earth is 
cold, they will rot m the ground. ' 

SifEEP. Mr. Livingston i[\2(% treated this subject with so 
mucn research and ability, itjat the Reader need require lit- 
tle or no further information, than what his Essays contain; 
but as this Worii would be imperfect, without treating of 
this impor'ant article, and as the Writings of Mr. Living" 
'ston and others are too voluminous tor insertion, it Becomes 
necessary to condense the subject, so as to present it in a 
small compass. ' 

, Animals undergo changes by domestication. Qualities 
>vhich they possessed in the wild state, but which are no 
longer useful in the domestic, become less and less visible; 
and owing, perhaps, to this circumstance, and to others, 
even their appearance becomes more or less altered. The 
ears of wild animals are erect, which enables them to hear 
with more acuteness; hut some of the Sheep ol Sicily and 
of Italy, says Mr LivingstoUy have been so long under the 
protection of Man, where this quality is not so requisite, 
that their ears have become pendant. Lord Kaims observes, 
that, when Sheep run wild they go in droves; that the males 
are the protectors of the Bock, and that the strongest claims 
precedence of the rest; that when they lie down, at night, 
some stand as sentinels, while the rest sleeps But these 
traits of instinctive sagacity they, in a great measure, lose 
Vhen Man becomes their Protector. 

M. Buffon and others' have supposed the Moujlon Mus- 
nipn, or Argali^ which is still found in the wild state, to be 
the original stock of the present Sheep. This animal is 
switt of foot, and in cctflpeli mates has merely a coat o! wool 
under a coat of hair. la' warm climates, it has nothing but 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 32^ 

a coat of hair; and such is the case with Sheep which have 
hsen long accustomed to such climatesv 

It would seem to be the economy dl Nature, that some 
graminivorous animals, when domesticated, but still ex ^josf 
«d to thti rigors ot the seasons, betome more inert, of 
course po^sests leus animal heat, and therefore require a 
more woolly coai : Wnilc oihers of the carnivorous kindi 
"Which are more shelicrtd by Man, but wlioi?e habus still 
require their wonted activity, and ot course rejtrain tjieir ani- 
mal heat, require less clothing, or a mere coatnof coarse 
hair This, perhaps, may oe the reason why .Sheep have 
more wool and less activity than the Argtsli ; and why Dogs 
have coarser hair than Wolves. 

It this, however, be titought sufficient to account for the 
difference between the Argali and such Sheep as shed their 
coats yearly, it is still diflftcuk tQ^ assign a reason why the 
Mtrino Sheep never shtd^ its cdlfc; tor this, if left on tor 
years, does not tail oif, bu; constaml) increases in length 
and quantity. Probably different climates and soils hav,e 
^ne much, in producuig marked differences among Shenp; 
and probably diti' rem kuicis,.as we now fiMd fbcm, have de- 
scended from stock which were ot the same genus, but pos* 
sessing properues diffetent trom each oiher. 

Mr. Livingston O'lserves, that ♦ as this quadruped has 
probably been tound throUiitiout all the inouutainous parts 
pf Europe and. Asia,^ and perhaps even m Atrica ; as its 
young are easily tamed; as its miik, its flesh, and us skin 
tare extremely valuable to Man, in a sav*ige swte ; it is 
highly probable that u was amongst the first quudrupiids 
that were domesticated ; and trom this circumstance ii has, 
perhaps, wrough. no less a change in Man, than Man has in 
it;* tfiai|n * is highly probible we are indebted, to it^for the 
conversion ot Masi, from the wild wandering Savage, to the 
mild and gentle Shepherd.* 

It may be found equally true, that different soils are best 
suited to different breeds ot Sheep; and that the soil often 
serves eventually to produce a difference in Sheep, 'Fat 
pastures (says Mortimer) breed straight,, tall Shtep; and 
the barren hilis, short, qoare- ones* 

The island, called <S'w2?///5f6r/an(i, lying off the eastern cape 
of Virginia, has been toufid remarkable for producing a 
breed ot Sheep of uncommonly fiije wool 

The large longwooled Sheep ot Grcatbritain require rich 
pa^ures ; and a moist soil will suit them better, perhaps, 
thati it will any other Sh^ep. Avvet soil, salt marshes ex- 
cepted, is, however, untriendly to Sheep of all kinds. Thq 
Meriho*^ Sheep require ii;ood pastures, and suph as is pro- 
duced bn dry soils. Farntiers, i^sitocking their farms with 
Sheep, ought to pay attention to the selection of such as are 



11^ 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 



best suited to iheii soiK Much of the high moist lalnlt^cif 
this and the neighboring counties, ii is b«;heved, woulil^l^ 
found toitTdt4y suuable ior raising the large lougwooled 
English Sheep. 

I< is hig'ly desirably; thit our Country should be stocked 
with Shtep of various knjd;;., in order lo sup^jdy itscll with 
the Various sorih ot cloihs which are necessary ift }cl>flF*^ rent 
uses. ' Ii> E^l - '^^ thi-y have ihe Teeswater. t\\e Lin coin" 
shh'e/dnd '^'.i Dartmoor breeds, wiuci> yi' icJ«^t-.eces ot i^mg 
coifse wool, w. filing on -an- average from eight to eli.ven 
pounds; aiiiiii»e average -w.eight of their carcases per 
quarter, is frbfn twiniy-fi'J^' to mirty poufids. The wftol of 
these She< p, and ot the Heathy Exmorc^ and Berkshire 
breeds^ ^«hich are ^rnalkr. and h ive i^mII coarser wool, is 
proper tor ihe rnviri^ufaC'ure ot 'linkets, Carf)eis, &c. 'a 

lHw , jytiDkicestershirf;: or fla/?->"zyWA breed, and the Catt* 
wold dud Homney-jnars/Wbrttii-.^ f^ave aJHo-long wool, but 
son)ewhat fin'. , bei ig oeiier :fi;.d tor th'- 'tniinufac ture ot 
worsicU tabrict>j and the average weight ot their fleeces is 
fpqm eight to nine pounds; the average weight of their car- 
cases, per quarter, is from twenty-two to twenty-four 
pounds. _ ':..■" 

Tat Bakcwell is an improved breed* which was engrafted 
upon soiiifc at those before' 'mentioned, and are highly 
esteemed lor the fatness of their carcases, and the fin6 
taste of their mutton. 

In addition to these, the ^English have various other 
breeds besides the MeTino, yielding fit < ces of short wool 
of various qudntiries and qualiiie^i the fidcsi of which are 
the Dunfaced and Shetland breeds; the next finest is the 
Hertford i^vRy eland breed, and the next the South- doivn. 

Mr, Livingston Says the latter very much rest||ible our 
common Sh. ep, having wool about equally fine; and that in 
England they are esteemed next to the Bdkewell breed. 

Ml. Custis, of Virginia, is rearing a new breed, which he 
calls iht; Arlington Sheep, that yield flreces of long wool, 
well fit^d for the manufacture of worsted fabrics. They 
are a mixture of the Bcskewell breed with a long-wooled 
Persian Ram, which was imported by General Washington. 
.Th<:y promise to be a valuable acquisition to our Country. 

In addnion to these are the Smithsisiand^ Sheep, before 
mentioned, which are also the property ot Mr Cus^tis, and 
which, on account of the fineness and lirgeness of their 
fleeces, promise to be highly valuable, provided the breed 
do hot degenerate in a fe\v years, when taken from tnat isl- 
and. ^ They are, shorn t\yice a year, and some of the fleeces 
weigh four pounds at each, shearing. 

Another breed of Sheep oug it to be noticed, as being 
peculiar to this^ Country : These are the Otter Sheep, so 



t^AllMER's ASSISTANT. 221 

^..A 6ti account of the length of/ their bodies and the 
_horiness of their legs/ They wcre'first lound in some of 
our Aihntic islands, and are ii>tleed, a rickciy, cnppltd- 
iooking race. Their wool is of a mcdiurrf fineness, and <rf 
a medium length: h is neither of a proper lengih tor 
combing, nor yet for broadcloths. 

TheM^advahtwges of this breed consist chit fiy JR tht^ir ina* 
biliiy to be mischievous, in leaping fence b.. S^^^^;ij.>Kl their 
disadvantages consist in their proporiioni^: 'inabjhiy to 
escape from Dogs. &c But th^ Man ot taste and tceling 
will make another objection .to ihem; their form is not 
pleasing to \he eye» and their rickivy, hobbling gait is cal- 
culated to excite pity, instead of pUias»irt>. • 

Another breed of Sheep, vwtiich "c,rv found in almost every 
quarter ot the globe, are [tie Broddlailed Sheep. These 
art; of d iff «i rent kinds, and yield fl«'eces ot different qualiies 
in Qifferent climates. In the Levant, their wool is fine; at 
the Cape ot Goodhope, it is coarse ; and at Mtdagascai, it 
is mere hair. They are generally larger than the European 
Sheep, and the tails of one kind weigh, in many instances, 
fitly pounds; being fso weighty that the Shepherds artj 
compeled to place two Utile wheels under each, to enable 
the Sheep to drag them.* 

» The composition of this excrescence (says Mr. Livin^^ 
aton) is said to be a mixture oi fl i>h with a great propoMion 
ot fat, and to be very delicate food ; but the anitnal has little 
other fat, the tail being in him the repository of that, fat 
which lies about the loins of other Sheep." 

As It is hardly probable that this excresence could have 
been inherent in the original stock, whence these Sheep 
descended; but has most probably be.en produced, either by 
accident or by art: Itis» perhapsj one of the, tnosi extraordi- 
nary instances, to be found, of an alteration produced in tlie 
form of an anitnal by domestication. 

A yearling Sheep has at its first shearing two droad leeth 
before, beside its narrow teeth; when sheared the second 
tittle, it has fourj the third time, six; and the fourth, eight. 
•They are then said to be full mouthed The teeth ot Ewes 
begin to decay at the age of five years; those of WetherSj 
at seven ; and of !(iams,^ at eight. At this age, a Ram shoijld 
be castrated, and turned off to faten with other .old Sheep. 
E>ves wiilTfaten faster during pregnancy than; at ai»y other 
/^4jime. .[, ■, ■■ ■ '"'y.-if^ .;. 

If properly kept, and no accident befal them duringi-preg- 

nancy, they are capable of yeaning till the age of tf n or 

twelve; but they frequenily become barren much sopoer, 

by reason of poor keeping, or^ by injuries received duHng 

pregnancy. When this is the cas^, and they groW; weakly^ 

hey should be fatened with other old Sheep. 



S2r FARMER»s ASSISTANT, 

Those set ?ipart for fating should be kept separa^ on. 
good feed, and have some Indian meal daily. Ii is said that 
a Sheep is never made very tat but once, and that then is 
the proper time to kill it i Bat, perhaps, this is not founded 
in truth. 

The proper tirtie for shearing is, when the weat^r has. 
set in prpity warm; but sooner, where the wool i^^^lUng 
off. TtiG sifool of Merino Siieep must be washed after 
Bhearing, as ' it cannot be washed to any effect whilo on 
their backs, 'the shearing of these may be later, as th^ir 
%vool never falh off Sheep, of the common kinds may have 
their wool washed while on their backs j but in that case 
they should be kept some days previous to shearing in a 
clean pasiure, in order that their wool may again imbibe 
some of the oil which is lost by washing, which will render 
the shearing more easy, and require less oil to be afierwards 
added for spining. 

In shearin»<^ care should be taken not to cut thenri ; and 
this is more particularly necessany with the Merino Sheep, 
whose fleece is so close as to render this operation much 
more slow and difficult, double the time at least. being re- 
i^uisite for shearing one of these, that is necessary ^ov one 
of ihe common kind. Would not shears, with blades much- 
narrower than those of tiie common kind, be much the best 
for shearing these Sheep ? 

In E'igland, it is a common practice, after shearing, to 
smear the bodies of the Sheep with a mixture of tar and 
fresh butter, which serves to cure the wounds in the skin^. 
and to fortify their bodies against the cold. This mixiure 
snay be improved by the addition of a small quantity of sul- 
phur The Sheep should again be anointed in the month 
of August, by introducing tlie omtment from head to tail, 
and also on the sides and back, by parting the wool for the 
purpose. ThJs composition should, at all events, be applied 
to the wounds. It serves effectually to destroy all the ticks, 
ivhich are very pernicious to Sheep 

The practice of pening up large flocks of Sheep together 
in a close place, during the shearing, is very injudicious; 
They should be pened up in the open air, and but a few 
brought together at a time. The common practice of tying 
the legs of the Sheep together, while shearing, is hurtful to 
them ; as it compresses theni into a situation which is un- 
natural and painful Rather le't each foot be tied by itself, 
in its natural posit;ion, to a small piece of wood, with cross 
pieces at each end, which may be easily contrived and made 
for the purpose. 

During cold rains and cold nights, after shearing, they 
should be placed where they can go into their house, or 
place of shelter, when they please i as they know best when 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 527. 

they jiyant shelter, and when they become so warm as to re- 
quire the open ^ir. They should at>jl times, but particu- 
larly at this, have plenty of salt, as tnis is a stimulant which 
enables them the better to withstand the^cold. A warm sun 
is hunful to the backs of Sheep after shearing, and for this 
reason their pasture should have sontje shade, lo which ttiey 
can retire during the heat of the day. 

Affer shearing, their skins should be carefully 'examined^ 
to see if they have any appearance of the sca&j- un6 those 
which have, should be kept apart from the rest, till cured, 
as this disease is contagious. * Tt)is, too, is th'. proper »inne 
to examine them, as to their age and healthy hv'ir bodily 
defects; and also, as to the quality 2Ci\di quantity of ihcir 
flfcces. Those >yhich are found old and brukt'n- mouthed, 
sickly and infirm,' ill-formed ; Ewes that are bad nurses, and 
lose their Lambs from wdnt of milk ; those whose wool is in 
small quantities, which is often the efFuCt of age or sickness; 
and, those whose wool is bad, either by being mixed with 
short hairs, or which are rough on the thighs: These 
should all be marked, in order to be turned off, anci put in 
good pasture for fating. 

The wool of yearling Sheep should be kept by itself; be- 
cause, not having the same ttxlure or strength which the 
wool of older Sheep has, it will make the cloth. shrink un- 
equally, if mixed with such wool. The other fleeces may 
be sorted at shearingume, making separate parcels of the 
thighs, the belly, and the back and sides. Wool should not 
be kept long without washing, as in that case it is liable to 
ferment and spoil in hot weather. 

After shearing, the horned Sheep should be examined, to 
see that their horns do not ^ress on the scull, or endanger 
the eyes; either of which may kill the animal. Where this 
is the case, the horns are to be taken off; and, for this pur- 
pose, Mr, Livingston recommends sawing ihem off with a 
fine stiff-backed saW; then apply some tar to the stumps, 
and tie a double linen cloth over them, to keep off the 

At.tbjs time also the Lambs should be docked, castrated, 
and marked. Mr Livingston recommends the Spanish cus- 
tom of docking^ the tail, as conducive to cleanliness. The 
castration is best. performed by taking away the testicles at 
once. This Operation may be performed on Lambs when 
not more than ten days old, and the earlier this is done, the 
finer will be their wool and flesh. If rain or cold weather 
succeed this operation, before they are cured, they Should 
be housed • otherwise they will be in danger of dying. 

Another method of castration, which is probably best for 
grown Sheep, is to tie a cord tightly round the scrotums and 



after five or sik days, when the part below the cord fl|H@| 
cut it cff jn^jt'fcielow the string, and tar the wound. TmiR^^ 
however, a dattgerous operation when the weather is warms 
Cool dry weather should be chosen for it. 

^ In Spain, it is usual, instead of ^either of these operaVions, 
to twis» the testicles within the scrotum, so as to knot the 
covfl I in which case they decay gradually, without .injuring 
the Sheep* " /' 

Sp;jying>^vve|ambs increases their wool, makes them fat • 
en better, and it is said improves the taste of their fl sh. 
If this operation is to be performed, which perhaps will 
seldom be found advisable, it should not be attempted be- 
fore 'he Lambs are six vve<ks old. 

Wherf; E^es are to be turned < fp For fatingy the Lambs 
must be weaned early ; and then let the Evves have the 
Rim a^ain, which wilV make them fueri better Lambs 
thus weaned should be put in a pastuit: of youn^ tender 
grass, out of liearing of their D*msj and an old Wether or 
Ewe should be put with them 'Cure must also be ta^ep to 
milk the Ewes every day or two, for the first week, untiJ 
their milk dries up. 

In all other cases, the woaninpj of Lambs, before the time 
v/hen they n.iturally 'wean theniselves, is believed to be by 
no means advisable^ as the L nibs are injured by it at le,ast 
as mu"chasnhe Ewes are btiufited This may, howevt^r, be 
found advisable where it is wished to have the Ewes im- 
pregnated earlier than the usual limey for ihe purpose of 
raising very early Lunbs. 

These, Mv Livingftton advises, should be shorn the first 
yearj as the cUvesnni^ them of their fleece miy be a racitier 
of some considerable profit, and^it reriders them more com» 
fonable during the Summer. Limbs^ however, which do 
not come until the snows are gone are always most easily 
reared; andf in order to this, the Ram must be kept from 
the Ewes in the Fail unfil about live months prt^vious to 
that time. Such Lambs must be kept from the Ram until 
the second Fdl. 

In^ Spain, twenty five Ewes are allowed to one Ram. 
Mv- .Livingston thinks forty by no means too many ; and 
instaucfcs are not iinfrequeru where o"ne Rum has served 
double and even treble that number. It the^^im, however, 
be. not well kept, where so many Ewes are allowed, he, will 
be It) clanger of b«uig injured. 

The best tim^ for Sheep to feed in pastures is while the 
dewis;pn; and this they will reaciily I'virn, if t'nt re l^e no 
water in the fields Vi'here thty are. kept. W.?tt r is not 
iieeessary (or Ihe m duM^g the season of pasUire; but it) 
Winter they should have '» free i;cc ess to it, although they 
can do mghy days vyithout it. 



I>ARMER*8 ASSISTANT. '529 • 

When Sheep are badly kept they take colds, and dis- 
cbarge a mocus from the nose. Good feeding, together 
with some pine boughs given them occasionally, will rure 
this complaint. It pine bouj^hs cannot be had, spread some 
tar over a board, and over ihis spread isome salt, which yiill 
induce the Sheep to lick up all. the tar, and, this will tffect 
a cjLire,.;;j^ .. 

Accbtd||ig to experiments made by Mr Daubenton^ a 
celeb/at^<l* French Agriculturalist,? it seems that tiftc Sneep 
of France, which are generally c^l tiie height of ah^tit twenty 
inches, eat about eight pounds <)f grass per day, or two 
pounds of hay per day, which is 'about the same thing; as 
eight pounds of grass, wt.en dried, will make but two 
pounds of hay An ^acre of pa'siure, then, which in the 
season would yield of grass what would be equal to two 
tons of hay, would probably support about eit^ht Sheep 
through the season. Ii must be remembered, however, that 
anim^h consume food in proportion to their sizo, anH that 
the Sheep here described are below the common size of 
Sheep in this Country. 

Mr. Daubenton also observes, that when his Sheep were 
fed on dry fodder, during the Winter season, many of the 
younger ones, and those which were weakly, droped tff;* 
that, on opening these, he found the food m the third sto- 
mach, or that which receives the food after the second 
chewing, to be so diy as to be unfi for digestion, and to 
this cause* he ascribes their death. This slate of the sto- 
m^th, he very justly concludes, is produced by the sudden 
change of food from grass to that of dry fodder ; and the 
remedy pointed out, which is very naiural, is mertly to feed 
them with a due proportion of succulent food. For this 
purpose, carrots, potaibes, turnips. &c. are all very good. 

Feeding Sheep with a liiile Ifidian corn, about half a gill 
to each per day, is very bent ficial | it keeps the flock in 
good heart; it enables the Ewes to rear their young much 
better; and it serves to prevent the wool from falling off in 
the Spring. Carrots, potatoes, &c. no doubt, answer the 
same valuable purpose. 

For early feeding for the Ewes which have Lambs, c 
small field of rye, thickly sown, is very good. Thty may^ 
be taken off in time for the crop to come to maturity, and 
jn that case they, will do.it no injury. A small field of ruta 
baga would probably be the best^ Vetches, clover, tall 
meadow-pats, and other grasses which start early, are ako 
very good for this purpose. 

Sheep should have bay dunng Winter of the best quality, 
and for this purpose, red-clover is esteemed ^e best. If 
about a peck of salt were applied to everv ton o| Ifay. whern 



339 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

earted into the mow, it would no doubt be found very good 
for them. The rack in which the hay is put should ^e^- 
right so as that, in feeding, the seeds and other matter %^\l 
no! fall into the wool ■about their nec^s. Uoder the rack a 
tropgh should be fixed, which will serve tor catching the 
seeds of the ha^, as well as for fe« ding the Sheep. 

They should be kept by themselves, and not sufft^red. to 
run among other cattle; their yard should be'^^spacious,,, 
thougb-^tfi*; proportion to the number in the flock; apd their 
shelter lE^i(uId be close over head, but the sides not so close 
as to preclude a due circulation ot air among them. Per- 
haps it is best to have it close on all sides but the south. 

The shelter ought also to be spacious, so as not to crowd 
them too closely together; and it should have some small 
apartments in which to keep the Ewes a few days previous 
to yeaning, and for two or three days afterwards These 
should be fed during this, time with succiilent food, and 
their apartments should be kept well littered The fence 
round the sheep-yard should be such as to keep out Dogs. 

, If the flock bfe large, so that a separation of it during 
MVinter would be advisable for promoting the health of the 
Sheep, the better way is to put the fullgrown Wethers by 
"themselves. This is the more advisable, because they do 
not require so good keeping as the Ewes and yoimg Sheep- 
and when kept with these they are enabled, from their 
superior strength, to take the best and most of the food to 
themselves. ' 

In regard to folding Sheep, on small or large piecearof 
ground, see Folping of Land 

Flocks of Sheep ihrive much better by being, changed 
frequently; but those will be most bent^fited Which are tak n 
from poor pastures and put into better. Theii^ pastures 
should be clear of weeds, as the burs produced by some 
spoil the wool; while others often prove hurtful to them, 
by eatirgj they should also be clear of all briars and bushesj 
for these si rve to tear r;ff much of their wool if) the Spring. 
Clover is the best pasture for .them. The evergreen shrub, 
called laiirel is poisonous to them when eaten, and ought 
therefore to be removed from their walks. This shrub is a 
species of the Laurus^ as we believe. 

To prevent Wolves from killing Sheep, says Mr. VHoni' 
«?edrVM, make an ointment composed of gunpowder and 
brimstone, powdered fine and mixed with tar and Currier's 
oil, and with this anoint the throats of the Sheep. This 
must be renewed as often as the ointment loses its moisture, 
whidh will be four or five times in a season. Wolves have 
been seen tot^'seize Sheep nnointed in 'his manner, and. find- 
ing their throats thus fortified, have left them without doing 
them any injury. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 331 

Having said thus much ot Sheep in general, something 
shall now be said of the Merino Sheejg in pariicular. 

These Sheep are cenainiy mtich'^e most piofiiable to, 
raise, where the soii and climate are suuable lo ihe^. 
Perhaps it may be found that some parts ot-^his Siaie may 
not be'^^ suitable for them as others; as some Farmers of 
this county (Herkimer) are making complaints cJt^^feing un- 
succeslliil in rearing l^htm. The climate, and mJL|j?:fi- of me 
soil, of"'4he Mohawk country is liioist, and this circ^timstance 
may perhaps not prove so favorable for their pfopagaiion 
here. 

Let experiments, however, be fairly and fully made upon 
them, betore any hasiy^ Conclusions are drjvvn. Most ot the 
Sheep ot this kind which have been brought into this part 
of the Sta.te were young, and such as were probably re-^ * 
jected from the flacks of those wi?o sent them abroad for 
sale. 

Mr. Livingston has stated the result of his Sheepshearing 
of the Spring of 1808, and ihis will perhaps serve to convey, 
as adequate an idci of the importance ot the Merino Sheep, 
as any^ thing that can be said 

'From twenty-nine common Sheep, he had upwards of one 
hundred and fourteen pounds, which he sold at thirty-seven 
and an halt cents per pound. This, allowing one dollar and 
fitly cents for the expense of keeping each Sheep lor a 
year, fell short three cents on each fleece of paying tor their 
keeping. 

Eighty three half blooded Ewes gave'upvvards of three 
hundred and ninety-three pounds;* ^nd forty seven halt- 
bloodtd Wethers gave upwards of two nunared and thiriy- 
six pounds. This wool sold for seventy five cents per 
pound. Clear profits on the fleece of eacli Ewe iwo dollars 
and three cents; on the fic:tice of each Wether, two dollars 
and fiiiy-five cents. 

Tmriy threefourth blooded Ewes gave upwards of one 
huhdred and fifty-six pounds i and three Wethers of the 
same blood gave upwards of sixteen pounds. This; wool 
sold tor one dollar and twenty-five cents per pound Clear 
profits on the fit-ece of each Ewe four dollars and seventy- 
five cents; on the fleece ot each Wether, twa dollars and 
twenty-five cents. 

Seven tullbred Ewes gave upwards of thirty-six pounds; 
and one Ram, fourteen months old, gave upwards of nine 
pounds. This wool sold ;or two dollars per pouiid. Clear 
profits on the fleece ot each Ewe eight dollars and seventy- 
five cents; on ihe Ram, seventeen dollars and tweniy-five 
cents. This Woolwas all sold at the above prices, without 
being washed. 



m FARMER^s ASSIST i^NT. 

'* -'. 

By the foriegoing, it Will be seen, that if the Farmer ex- 
pects 10 derive large (ir^ fi ;* troai these Sheep, he ought rxot 
t6 test uruil he hus goi loio the fullbloods of this breed, % 
ijtifplht filjeen-sixteeiiths, which will answer about as wett. 
T'»e pr;.fi 'Hif Ijre Lambs, iiiw»U be seen, is not taken into 
considerujon iri ihis sVau ment 

If thi'.se^Sheep are thus pn fi able for their wool, it is also' 
Wfcll asc%jc{iined 'hat they are at least as profitable as any 
others fof^lfa ting 

Mr Yoiing' 'o<,k a Merino, weip^ht eighty-four pounds ; a 
hall ^ouLiidown^ quarter B^ktwell, and quarter Nortolkj 
v/cig*!it one huiidred and tony one poui»db; and a South- 
do v^^i, ws ight one hundred and thir(y six pounds; these 
■WcCv' kd abroad together a certain Kngih oi time, and then 
^ weighed. The fi'St werghed one hutidi'd pounds; the 
second, one hundi (^d arid forty eight . and tnv last, one 
hundred and tony four pounds Thus the Merino gained 
more than, double the quantity of fi.sh wliich the other two 
gained. * , 

He also made anbthe.r experiment, ^hich served to show 
that a Merino only eats in proportion to its siz" By t^is he 
found that three Merinos nnay be maintained four per cent 
cheaper than two of the Southidowns The weight of the 
Menho, upon which this trial was madr., was ninety-one 
pounds; thai of the Southdown, one hundred and thirty-two 
pounds. . 

Mr. Livingston says the size of 'the Ewes, more than that 
of the Ram, governs the stze of their Laaibs^ that the Ewes 
ot a small race cannot bear large Lambs, though the Ram 
be ever' so lar^e. For this reason, the Limbs which are 
raised from a Merino Ram, on our common Ewes, will be 
larger than those raised from one of our common Rams on 
Merino Ewes. This is the reason why Rims of the large 
English breeds, when brought here, do not produce a race 
any way correspondmg to th^ir own size. 

Mr. Livingston therefore recommends engrafting a Meri- 
no stock upon our common Ewes, to increase the size of 
ihe bfecd ; though, it they only eat in proportion to their 
size, this is not so material. 

In the selection of the Ewes, take those that are at least 
three years old, as large as can be obtained of the sort, with 
the belly large and well covered with v/ool, chine and loin # 
broad, breast deep, buttocks full, the eyes lively, the bag 
large, and the teats long. In addition to these qualifications, 
they must have fine shoi^t thick wool, their bellies well co- 
vered, and with the least hau on iht: iiinder parts. 

In the choice of the Ham, which we will suppose to 
be threefourth blooded,' and which can be purch^|e.d for 
iweniy five dgllarsj select one that is of good sizeV- broa^ 



FARMER'S ASSISTANTo 033 

in the chine and loins,, deep in the carcase;, the back 
straight, the ribs well- set out so as lo give room lor a large 
belly, well covered with wool, the *6Vehead broud, ihe eye* 
lively (a heavy eye being a mark of a diseased bneep)ttes» 
tides large and covered with wool; Let him <»ls6' be 
strong, close-knit, and active; of whTch you muy judge by 
taking hold of his hind legs; and, lastly, id bis vvool be of 
good\qualiiy, and sCs clear of hair on the hmde/ parts as 
possible. '^ 

The product of such a Ram, with common Ewes, would 
be Lambs possessing nnie , twenty tourtii pan^ ot, Merino 
blood; and twice repeating iht; process on the Fr;in^les of 
the successive products, wpuld give threetourth- blooded 
Lambs, Two* further repetitions irorn a lull- blooded ,Ra,m» 
would give Lambs possessing fitieen sixteunibs ot Merino 
blood, vwhich is probably sufficient. Tue Ram, howeytr, 
ought to be changed at each timt ; as it is btliev d drat 
the rearing of succeeding, stockb, Octwecnvvhich there is 
the closest consanguinity, ihust eventually "tend lo acgenc'^ 
rate the breed. 

In Spain, where by the extent of the pastures the num- 
ber of the Merinos are limited, it is usual to kill off some 
of the most indifferent Luiiibs, and thus two Ewes can be 
given to suckle one ol tiiose ijurvivmg. This is usually ef- 
fected by puting the skin of the dead Lamb over a living 
one, which commonly uiduces the Dam o^ the dead one to 
recognize the living as her own. VVnere this fails, tht Ewe 
is held for the L.imb to suck herj and she is confitVed widi 
it a day or two, by which tune she gentruily adopts it. Tnis 
custom is only in part advisable hert ; ihai .is, wlieuever a 
Lamb dies, to accustomed us Dam, m ttas manner, to give 
its milk to another Lamb. 

It has been feared by some that these Sheep, when no 
longer mi'gratory, and changed from their accustomed cli- 
mate, will degenerate, and their wool grow coarser; but ex- 
perience does by no cleans warrant mese apprehejuionSo 
They have been kept si:itionary for more than eij;,hiy y«.ais 
past in Sweden, and nearly as long in France, and yet iiave 
suffered no deterioration. 

Mr. Livingston thinks the wool of his Merino Sheep, 
which he has raised here, finer than of those which were 
imported. It is a general rule with animals which shed their 
hair, that the farther north,' the warmer, and oi course the 
finer, is their coats; but, a^ these Sheep never shed their 
wool, the rule does not necessarily include them. Their 
wool is'in this respect similar to human hair; but this i^ 
always found the finest in the colder climates. 

Apprehensions have also been entertained that these 
3heep^ having in Spain been long accustomed to siiuatiGns 



a34 FARMER^s ASSISTANT. 

1»here Winter is scarcely lelt, would be found unable to 
stand ihe severity of our Winters;. but the tact just men- 
tioned, of their being successiuDy reared even in the cold 
clim|it,e of Sweden, sufficiently obviates this objeciion. 

Mr. Livingfston says, that, * like all other Shtep, they 
will be lound the better for good keeping; yet they will not 
suffer more than others from neglect ; and that they ^ill, in 
every mixed flock, be found amongst the most thritty" in' the 
severest wekther.* * 

Some, again, may suppose that the Country Will soon be 
stocktd with Merinos, and that the price of their wool will 
then fall to that of common wool; but such should remem- 
ber, that mere than half the civilized world is destitute of 
these Sheep; and that, while ihtiy continue ,to remain so, 
the Sheep, the wool, or the fabrics made from it, will be 
eagjprly sought after. 

"In the course of a century, North and South- America will 
probably contain two hundred millions of People, and the 
vants of these alone will at that titne require ttiree hundred 
iBillions of Merinos. There is certainly no danger of the 
price of Merino wool falling much, tor twenty years to 
come. 

The Ewes of this breed seldom produce twins; though^ 
if necessary, they may be made, like other Sheep, to breed 
twice a year. Ewes of the English Teeswater breed have 
been known to bring five Lambs in a year. 

The Ram, when put to the Ewes, should be better kept 
than usual ; and for this purpose should be fed two or turee 
times a day with a slice or two of br^ad, tnade of Indian 
meal, which may be given to him by hand. When the 
Ewes are not suckling Lambs, they may at any time be 
brought to take the Ram, by feeding some Indian corn to 
them. . 

The first Lamb of a young Ewe will never be "so strong 
as those succeeding, because she will not have the same 
strength, nor the same quantity of milk, which she will 
have afterwards 

There are djflferent breeds of Merinos in Spain, says Mr. 
Livingston, and the wool of some is inferior to thiH of 
others; some selling there for only sixty cents a pound, 
while others sell for a dollar. The best flocks are those of 
the JSscurialy of Gqudalou/ic, of Paular^ of tne Duke D^lu' 
fantadOi of Monturto^ and of the Mgretti. The tirst exceeds 
for fineness of wool; the second, lor fineness of form, and 
fineness and abundance of fl(.ece ; the third, with similar 
fleeces, are larger bodied. * The Lambs of this stock, and 
ii\ that of the Duke DTnfantado, are commonly droped with 
a tnick covering, which changes into very fine wool.' The 
Nigretti are the largest breed. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 335 

After Merino wool has^ been sorted, as before directed^ 
and is to be manufactured in the Fdinilyj let it be covered 
with soft water, mixed one-third with urine, and let it stand 
fifteen ^hours, or longer if the weathter be cold. A cauldron 
is then to.be put on the fire, with some soft water, an^l, let 
two-thirds of that which covers the fi eces be added to it. 
When so hot as that the hand cannot bear it, take out tlie 
wool, put it in a basket, press out the liquor, put the baket 
in thr cauldron, and the r^ wash the wool by pressing^, wiih- 
out any wringing of it, and then cleanse it in runing water. 
If thcA^water in the cauldron become too idirty, take more 
water from that in which it was first soaked. 

Dry the wool in the shade^ not in the sun; let it then be 
beat with a rod, which takes out all seeds, &c. and softens 
it; then pick it, by opening it lengthways cartfally, and 
card it with cotton,, not with wool, cards Carding machines 
are advised not be used for this wool, unless particularly 
filed for it. 

■ The above is the European method of managing this 
wool, before carding, &c but Mr. Livingston thinks that 
if the wool be carefully picked and carded, so as to ^et out 
most of the dirt, and wove in this way,* that it will answer 
without washing; in which case less oil, or grease, will be 
necessary. * • 

Common-wool canot be carded too much; Merino wool 
may. In spining, the warp mubt be twisted the opposite 
way from that of the woof, which should be spun more 
loose, or slackly twisted, than that of the warp. For spining 
the woof, the wool is to have one pound of oil, or grease^ to 
every four pounds; but,, for the warp, one pound of oil to 
every eight pounds of wool is the proper allowance. This is 
for very fine spining; but, for spining coarser yarn, less oil 
is necessary. Olive-oil is the best for greasing the wool; 
neatsfoot-oil is also very good ; and no doubt the oil which 
is produced from the sunflower would be found as good as 
cither. 

<S^e. Sunflower. 

The Farmer will find a great addition to his profits from 
his Merino wool, by converting it*into fine cloth, in his own 
Familyt if this can conveniently be done. 

Sheep of all kinds are subject to fewer diseases in this 
Country than in most others, This article shall, therefore, 
be concluded with noticing those most prevalent here, and 
the remedies for each, together vvith some slight notice of 
some which prevail abroad. 

Those of grown Sheep are as follows : 

The s^cab. This appears first by the Sheep rubing the 
part affected, and pulling out the wool in that py.rt ^itb 



336 FARMER^s ASSISTANT. 

their teeth, or iy loose locks of wool rising *on their Jbacks 

and shoulders. - >> 

The Sheep infected is first to be taken from the fl jck and 
put by i'seU; <ind then the pan affected is tb'^havd the wool 
takeft off, as Jar as the skin feels hard to ithe fi )ger, and 
washed with soapsuds and rubed hard with a sheebrush, so 
as to cleanse and break the scab. Then anoint it with a 
decociioq of tobacco water, nnixf d with the third of lie of 
WO' id ashes, as much gjrease as .this lie will dissolve, a 
small quantiry of tar, and about an eighth of the whole mass 
of the spirits of fturpeniine. This ointment is to be rubed 
on the part fftcted, and for isome little distance round itj 
at three d I fTc; rent times, with an interval of three days af- 
ter each washing:- With timely precautions this will al- 
ways be found sufficient. 

in very inveterate cases, Sir Joseph Banks says mercurial 
ointment must be resorted to ivviihgr>,eitt care, however, 
keeping the Sheep dry ; the wool to be opened, and a streak 
to be made down the back, and thence down the rihs and 
this^hs. Finewooled Sheep, and Rams which have been much 
exhausted by covering, are most subject to this disorder, and 
in finewooled fl )cks*it is most diffictilt to cure. It is said 
thai it nnay be Communicated, even by a Sheep lying on the 
same ground on which a scabby one had shortly before lain, 
or by rubing against the same post. 

Pelt'Tot In this disease the wool falls ofT, buMhe skii^ 
does not become sore, but is merely covered with a white 
crust Cure. Full feedint>, warm keeping, and anointing 
thv -hard part of the skin with tar, oil, and butter, mixed 
t0K«^''^her. 

Tick' As- these occasion a constant scratching, they 
prove itijurious to the wool., and ihey sometimes occasion 
the death of lean Sheep. Cure. Blow tobacco-smoke into 
every part of the fit ece, by means of a bellows. The smoke 
istaken into the bellows, the wool is opened, the smoke is 
blown in, and the wool is then closed. This is repeated 
over every part of the body, at proper distances. It is 
quickly performpfl. 

See also Insects, for a'nother method of killirg Ticks. 

D(j^s. These ofitn prove more iKJiirious to Sh«ep thap 
all their other maladies put together. Cure. A fi-e, say 
of a hundred dollars, upon every Man thdii keeps a Female 
of these animals above eight inches. high; or ;* yearly tax, 
say, of tweniy dollar^, l*id upon the Owners. Extirpate the 
Females of this race, and the whole bi^eed would soon disap- 
pear. The Legislature may easily enforce a laiv of this 
kind, without danger of its being unpofmiar^ which it n said 
would be the fate of a law taxing the whole race of Do?rs 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. ssr 

Stag-gers. A disease of the brain, which renders them 
unable to stand : Incurable by any means known, wluch 
would warrant the expense. 

See, however, what Gibson says, of Staggers 

Coldft. The principal indication of this is the. discharge 
of mucus from the nose. The cure has already been no- 
ticed. Whenever this, however, becomes habitual with old 
Sheep, they should be killed off 

Purging. If any are severely afflicted in the Spring 
with this, which sometimes happens after being turned out 
to grass, house them, give them a dose of castor-oil, feed 
them with dry food, and give them some crusts of wheat 
bread. A sligiijtj^urging will not hurt them. 

Hove. SheepiQiike Neat cattle, when put into clover- 
pastures, sometirnes have their stomachs distended by 
wind,^ so that they will die if not relieved. The swelling 
rises highest on the left side, and in this place let the knife 
be inserted, or other means used, in the manner directed 
for Neat-cattle. 

See Neat-cattle. 

The diseases of Lambs are: 

Pining. When the excrement of the L^mb becomes so 
glutinous .a^s to fasten the tail to the vent, it must be washed 
clean, aufi;t|ave the buttocks and tail rubed with dry clay, 
which will-prevent any further adhesion. 

Purging. Put the Lamb with its Dam into a dry place, 
and give her some oats, old Indian corn, or crusts of wheat 
bread If the Dam has not milk enough, give the Lamb 
Covv's milk, boiled, or let it suck a Cow. 

Sometimes it may be found necessary to bleed Sheep, to 
allay some inflammatory disorder. 

* Daubenton recommends bleeding in the lower part of 
the cheek, at the spot where the root of the fourth tooth is 
placed, which is the thickest part of the cheek, and Js 
marked on the external surface of the bone of the upper 
jaw, by a tubercle sufficiently prominent to be very sensible 
ta the finger, when the skin of the cheek is touched. This 
tubercle is a certain index to the angular vein which is 
placed below.* 

The method of bleeding, after finding the vein, it is 
hardly necessary to describe. 

Philip. Be Castro^ a Spanish Shepherd, has writen a short 
treatise on the diseases of Sheep in Spain, and of their man- 
agement there; and he recommends that bleeding should 
be performed in a vein in the fore part of the dug. The 
essay of this Shepherd is believed to be worthy of some 
further notice. 

He says the Merino Sheep of Spain are subject to the 
following diseases: 

43 



330 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

The scab. Cured by Juniper.oil, when the weather is 
wer, or by a decoction of tobacco, in dry weather. 

Basquilla; occasioned by loo much blobd. Cured by 
bleeding in the dug, as before mentioned. 

Modere^ (lethargy) occasioned by pustules formed on 
the brain. The She^p keeip turning, while feeding, to the 
side where the pustules are tbrined. Pew recover, and the 
disease is infectious. Some get well in part by pricking the 
part affected with an awl ; but those attacked 'with this dis- 
order should be killed off. ^^ 

Smallfiox; being blisurs, which ferst appear on the flanks, 
and spread over the body. It is produqed by drinking 
stagnant waters. The diseased Sheep ate.^to be kept apart 
from the rest, as the disease is infecii6]^^Sii and when the 
blisters break anoint them with sweetoil. 

Lastly, Lameness. This appears to be the same as is de- 
scribed by Mr. Livingston. 

He observes that ' the legs of Sheep are furnished with 
a duct which terminates in the fissure of the hoof; from 
which, when the animal is in health, there is secreted a 
white fluid ; but when sickly these ducts are sloped by the 
hardness of the fluid ' 

He adds, that he had, » in some instances, found the 
Sheep relieved by pressing out the hardened pfiatter with 
the finger from the orifice of the duct in each ifoot. Per- 
haps it may in some cases be proper to place their feet in 
%uarm water, or to use a firobey^ or hard brush, for Cleansing 
this passage.* 

He concludes by observing, that probably the ill-health of 
Sheep, in wet or muddy pastures, may in some measure be 
ascribed to the necessity of keeping these ducts free and 
©pen. 

The Compilers of * The Complete Grazier,* however, 
mention another kind of lameness in Sheep, which is called 
the foot-halt. It is caused by an insect resembling a worm, 
two or three inches long, which is found to have entered 
between the close of the claws of the Sheep, and worked 
its passage upward between the external membranes and 
the bone. To extract the worm, move the claws backwards 
and forwards in contrary directions, and it will work its way 
out. In Greatbritain, this disorder is chiefly cotj fined to 
wet pastures. 

De Castro also mentions diseases to which the Merino 
Ltmbs are subject, in Spain, when brought forth in wet 
weather; such as the lohannillo (gangrene) which has no 
cure. The amarilla (jaundice) which is infectious; the 
flesh and bones ot the Lamb turning of the color of yellow 
wax: For this a small quantity of the flix leaved daphne 
guidium is good. The coviro, a lameness of the feet,. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 339 

which appears to be the stopage ot the c^xcretory duct, be*- 
fore mentioned. Gv-^nerally, he says, the Lambs are subject 
to ihe diseases ot the Ewes; and iliat ti||€ same remedies 
are requisite. 

Sheep, in Greatbritain, are subject to tlie rot; but it is 
believed that this disease has never been known in this 
Country. i^Another disease, however, which the British 
Writers mention, our Sheep are •sometimes liable to ; ihis 
is, being maggoty, occasiane<i by being flyblown; and, it not 
tamely renn cued, the maggois will, eat into the entrails in 
twency-tbur hours. Cured by corrosive sublimate and tur- 
jientine rubed into the sore. 

Sheep, in Greathritfain, are also subject to diseases called 
the redwater iixi^'ipJi}tcivater^ trom the color ot their urine. 
No cure known[;itSuppobed to be occasioned by eating 
poisonous weeds. 

Frequently changing flocks of Sheep from one farm to 
another, where the pastures are equally good, is very bene- 
ficial to them. We know a fiock which, for several years 
past, have been pastured on different tarms, by being let 
out to cliflTerent Farmers on shares, which are much the 
finest looking Sheep to be found any where in the neigh- 
borhood where they belong. 

The Farmer who would rejoice to see our Country so far 
independent, as to become stocked with woolen fabrics of 
our own making, must iVel himself impeted by his pacri- 
otism to endeavor to afford his share ot supplies ot wool, 
which are so neediul to our infant Manutactories ; and he 
who is insensible to a love of Country, may siul find a 
powerful incentive to the raising ot Sheep, in consulting 
his own imerest. ||^ 

The raising of Merino Sheep, in particular, is undoubt- 
edly very profitablt ; and the nearer the Farmer brings his 
breed to that ot the fullblood, the greater will be his profit. 
Like every thing, however, which innovates upon ancient 
usages, the Merino has its prejudices to encounter; and the 
Savage who first introduced the use of the bow and arrow 
to his Countrymen, no doubi, had the same. But let the 
sensible and spirited F.rmer persevere; and in the end his 
Merino flock will aff*ord him a rich harvest; the pleasure 
and profit of which his weaker Neighbor must forego, as a 
tax on his prejudices. 

J^ote. We have Inserted the article Sheep as it appeared in the 
first edition of this Work. We oug;ht now to observe, that the ex- 
treme low price at which British woolen cloths are aftbrded, is cal6ii- 
lated to discourage many in the rearing- of Sheep extensively ; and 
tlie Merino, from the great encouragement given to them in Great- 
britain, has shared the common fate, in regard to the present low 
price of wool in this Country. 



S40 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

SILKWORMS. For raising these worms (says Mr. De 
La Bigarre) the first step is to procure the eggs, which 
should be from a climate similar to that where they are to 
be hatched. Good eggs tuke, successively^ the colors of 
grideiin, purple, and an ash-colored hue : They will crack 
under your nail ; while the bad ones will make no noise, 
when pressed in the same manner, ~Leave them on the 
cloth where they were laid by the female, and keep them 
in a dry place where they will not freeze in Winter, nor be 
too much heated in Spring. 

When about to be hatched, take them off the cloth; and, 
when the first buds of the mulberry conie but, proceed to 
hatching them. Divide them into ounces, and put each 
ounce into little flat boxes, lined and rtiade soft in the in- 
side, and let them be kept in a constant degree of warmth 
equal to ninety-six ot Fahrenheit*<s, thermometer. Sojhue put 
Ihem into little bags, and carry them under their cloihes in 
the day time, and under their pillow while sleeping^ but 
perhaps the better way is, to keep them in a small apart- 
ment constantly warmed by a stove or othtrwii>e. 

The bags must be opened every day to give them fresh 
air, while hatchT||ife. When the eggs turn a whitish color it 
is a sign the worms will soon come out; and then, if in 
bags, they must be stired up five or six times a day, to give 
the young embryos sufficient air j but, if they be in boxes, 
they can be thinly spread over the bottom, and then open-" 
ing the; boxes once or twice a day will answer. The time 
usually req\iired for hatching is about eight or nine days; 
sometimes longer If too much heat be applied it) hatching, 
many of the worms will/^perish in raising. An ounce con- , 
tains about forty two thousand eggs; but among these may 
be many bad ones, which, if they do not hatch in two days 
after the first hatchings, may be thrown away. 

The eggs of the yellow cocoons are to be prefered, as 
they give the most and best silk. . ' 

. If you hatch in bags, as soon as you find some of the 
worms coming out, put them all into such boxes as before 

But times must alter. The wool of the Merino Sheep which are 

reared in Greatbritain is found to be growing coarser, and. in a fe^y 

years will be unfit for making the finest cloths. The climate and 

most of the soil of that Country is only properly fited for producing 

''large, coarse, longwooled Sheep. 

Here, the quality of the Merino wool is found to be rather improv- 
ed. The Uritish will therefore be soon compeled, in a great mea- 
sure, to abandon their own stock of Merino Sheep, and to look 
abroad for supplies of the finest wool. It is also to be expected that 
further encouragement will be given to our own Manufactures, as 
this is a policy that must be pursued, if we ever expect to become a 
great and independent People. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 341 

described. When a sufficient number have come out, take 
a piece ot parchment hied to the inside, cut ii tull ot holes 
like a sieve, lay it over ihe«i, ai-d on it s|)r€ud some tender 
young mulberry leaves, and the worms tvili then come up 
through the holes to feed on theni When a sufficient 
number have thus come up, take up the parchment, by 
strings fixed to it tor the purpose, and place the leaves and 
worms in a larger box or shelf, lined with white paper* 
Fill only about a third ot the bottom ot this box,* or enclosed 
sheit, with leaves; because as thevvorms grow larger they 
require more room. Htre you Iced the worms till alter 
then tirst moulting. 

In the meai;i^^tjpe, the parchment is to be laid on with 
leaves, as bcforejdo take out other supplies ot worms; and 
it mese be taken oiit on another day ihey are to be put in 
anotljerbox or shell j as those hatched on difTerent days are 
to be' kept m different boxes. At the end ot two or three 
days, all the good eggs will be hatched, and the rest may 
be thrown away. After they are haiched, they must be 
kept in about the same temperature ot heat tor ten or 
twelve days. They are to be ted twice or three times a day 
with tender leaves, till the time of the fir^t moulting; and 
let those ieaves previously fed be eaten, Ibeiore tresh onc5 
are given. 

In about six or seven days they generally arrive to their 
first niouiting, if properly kept in regard to waimih, clean- 
liness. Sec. II they should be as long as a fortnight before 
moulting, they wul not do well. 

In their moukings, they lie in a torpid state, in which 
they leave their old coats and acquire new ones. They 
moult lour times, before they begin to sf in. While in this 
state, they should be kept rather warmer than usual, and 
should not be disturbed. Previous to each ot these limes 
they look dull and weak, they lose their appetite, the skin 
becomes bright, and they seek for a place to lie by them- 
selves. They lie motionless for about two days. They Will 
not all moult on the same days; biit in three or four days 
the business will be over, whicn may be discovered by the 
color ot the skin, and by their activity; and then it is time 
to change their Utter and clean the shelf. In order to get 
them out, spread over them some tresh leaves, upon which 
they will crawl, so as to enable you to Lit them up. Put 
one-half ot these into one shelf of the same size, and th^- 
other halt into another ; and this enlargement of ttieir room 
must be repeated after every moulting, as they are .con- 
stantly growing larger. . «> ^v^/ 

Alter the first moulting, some of the worms will Tie re^- » 
ish, some ash-colored, and some of a blackish hue. The 
redish ones may be thrown away, as they will not come to 



342 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

any thing. More worms perish in the third moulting than 
in any other. 

The mulberry leaves must be picked when perfectly dry; 
and as this cannot be done every day, a store of them is to 
be kfept on hand, laid in a cool dry room, and siired up 
now and then, to prevent their heating and wilting. The 
number of meals, alter the first moultitig, is to be governed 
by the appetite of the worms ; and, it this bfe not good, it is 
most probable that they want more heat. Do not deal out 
the leaves faster than they are eaten. 

In seven, eight, or nine days, they will moult a second 
time; and so on, for the two following tinies. The larger 
they grow, the less heat they want. After'the third moult- 
ing, open the windows each day, to givfe them fresh air. 
The shelves are to be cleaned after each nraouking; and 
where the intervals between the moultings are unusually 
long, let them be cleaned twice. When too much crowded, 
take some out on leaves, as before directed, and place them 
elsewhere. They cannet bear to be touchei by hand, Un- 
less very gently. 

The white-mulberry leaves are best for feeding the 
worms; and the tender young leaves of young trees are to 
be prefered at fii^st ° but in their more advanced stages they 
want older leaveb ; and these may be of older,; or grafted, 
trees. Other kinds of mulberry, however, will answer. li 
the leaves cannot be had dry, let them be dried before they 
are used, as wet leaves are hurtful. 

When they are past the last moulting they eat greedily, 
and want more food than before. At the end of seven or 
eight days they begin their cocoons. During all this time, 
let them daily have fresh air, and let. their shelves be 
cleaned. 

When you find them creeping about without eating, as if 
in search of something, with their bodies of a bright straw- 
color, it is then time to prepare bushes, fixed on tables, for 
them to climb on and fix their cocoons. The bushes are to 
be dry and clear of leaves, and set in rows with their tops 
leaning together. Under these lay some mulberry leaves, 
for the further feeding of those which may not be quite 
ready for spining, and do not let the worms be crowded too 
much on the tables. To put them on the tables, you apply 
your finger, to which they readily attach ; then put them on 
si smooth varnished plate, to which they cannot adhere, and 
empty them carefully on the table. Those that incline to 
feed longer will do so, and those that do not will ascend 
the boughs. The spining is completed in three or four 
t days; bui, as they do not all commence at the same time, 
pick oft the cocoons in about twelve days after th^y have 
begun to spin. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 343 

The chrysalis contained in each cocoon is killed by plac- 
ing them, in baskets lined with brown paper, in an oven 
heated nearly warni enough to bake bread If this be not 
done, the chrysalis eats its way out ot the cocoon, and thus 
spoils the contexture of the silk. They are to be kept in 
the oven till the ratling noise, which they occasion while 
dying, has abated. Then take them put, and wrap them 
close in a blanket to suffocate those which may not yet be 
dead. Previous to the operation of baking, the outer coat, 
called tow, is to be taken off; and the same is to be observ- 
ed with those which are kept tor seed. 

In reserving these, take equal numbers of males and 
females, of the yt How kind. The male cocoon is sharp- 
pointed; the female, round at each end. After being di- 
vested of their tow, string them together, male and female 
alternately, upon a coarse thread, leting the needle go 
merely through the surface of each, for fear of hurting the 
<;hrysalis within ; hang these in a dry place till the butterfly 
comes out. One pound of cocoons will give an ounce of 
eggs. When the butterfly has come out, the males are 
known by being sharp-pointed; the females being larger 
and full of eggs. Place them all on a piece of bl u k cloth, 
and put the males and females together in [feirs; let them 
remain so three or four hours; and then throw the males 
away, leaving the females to deposit their eijjgs. These are 
to be well dried on the cloth on which they are laid, and 
put in a fresh room during Summer, and out of the way of 
frost during Winter, * 

Bad management and other causes occasion some disor- 
ders among the worms. Some become fat, and do not moult, 
but continue eatings having a whiter and more oily appear- 
ance than the rest. After the tHird or fourth moulting, 
some become lean, refuse to eat, turn soft, and become 
smaller than formerly. The yellow worms never appear 
but a little before spining, and, instead of becoming mature, 
swell up with nasty yellow spots on their heads, and at last 
over their bodies. All these, when discovered, are to be 
thrown away. 

The other method, recommended by the same Writer, is 
to raise these worms on white-mulberry hedges. A hedge 
of this kind, of three years old, he says, begins to be fit for 
the worms ; but those which are four or five years old will 
be better, as they afford the worm more places of retreat in-, 
storms. Two br three days after the first moulting, and in 
a fine warm day, p\it the young worms on the hedge, by 
means of leaves as -before mentioned. The feathered end 
of a goose-quill is very good to raise them, or move them 
in different places. Put them on the fedger at the rate of 
about one hundred to every two rods; but thicker, where 



244 FARMER»s ASSISTANT. 

the hedg:e is ol!:l<='r. Worms thus raised in the open air, 
says the same Writer, arc free from all disorders • their 
otilv fate depends on the season; and our Summers are 
preferable to those in Europe, for raisings them. In this 
way, care must, however, be taken to keep certain birds 
from them. 

The same Writer also remarks, in a note to his observa- 
tions on the diseases of this worm, that he was afterwards 
informed of an experiment made in this State, by which it 
appears that this climate is more favor ble for raising them 
under cover, than that of Spain or Prince. Out of six 
thousand worms raised by Mrs. Montgomery^ but very Jew 
died; and her s^iccess in raising tj^^m ivas equv.1 in preced- 
i?>g years. In Europe, he says, four-fifihs of them perish 
before spining, * , ,. 

Having ^hus desc^ihed the process of forniing the qocoons 
cr balls of s'lk. something remains to be said of the manner 
of ronvertinjr them into threads, for making cloths. • 

The cocoons are covered wi^h a ki^d of rough cotton-like 
substan<*e, which is called floss: Within, the thread Js 
more'distjnict and even ; and next to the body of the insect 
the apartment s^ems lined with a substance of the hardness 
of paper; but of^a nnuch stronger consistence. 

The threads composine: the cocoons do not cro round, iti 
the manner in which a b^ll of tbv^^d is wound ; but, |ie in 
an irregular, manner, winding off fi^'st on one of the sides, 
and then perbaps en that opposite. THe whole length of a 
thread is about three hundred "yards Eight or tep of the 
cocbons are usv^allv wound f.ff together; though the num- 
ber to be thus wound off must depend on the size intended 
to be given to the thread. corn posed of these, when twisted 
together. 

In order to cdrnnjenre the operation of winding, the floss 
is first to be taken off"; and then the cocoons are to be 
thrown into warm water, and stired about in it till the jsnd 
of the thread of each is discovered by its becoming disen- 
gacred from the body of the cocoon. 

The proper number of threads are then to be wound bff 
tog^her, the cocoons remaining in the water during the 
operation. The whole of each is oot^ however, to be wound; 
as the latter parts of the threads gradually grow weaker, 
and of a bad color. 

I The paper- like substance, before mentioned, may be ^used 
in two ways: It may be stained of various colors, and used 
for the purpose of making ariificial flowers ; or it may lie 
in! the water till the glutinous matter that cements it is dis- 
» solved, and then be carded, and spun, for making silks of 
inferior quality. 



FARMER*s ASSISTANT. U^ 



SLIPS. These are twigs torn from a tree or shrub, to 
propc\gate by planting in a moist soil. L< t i wo thirds of 
their length be buried^ and they will strike root more 
readily than cutings. This, says Mr Deane^ should be 
done as soon as the ground is thawed in the Spring. They 
should be set, if possible, as soon as they are taken from 
the tree; otherwise let their ends be enclosed in wet clay, 
until the time of seting. 

They should be set in fine rich pulverized earth, and 
should be frequently watered, particularly when the ground 
is dry. 

Some twigs will in this way grow very readily; others, 
again, are more difficult to grow Mr. Deane advises to 
place those, most difficult to grow, in pots, where they can 
be mor^, care fully attended to. It is said that some trees, 
which, are not natural to be cultivated in this manner, will 
not grow so large as when raised from the seed. 

Where fruit-trees are cul ivaied in this way, the trees 
thus raised will bear the same fruit as those whence the 
slips where extracted. It is said that the life of a fruit-tree, 
raised from a slip or cuting, will end nearly at the same 
time of that whence the slip or cuting is extracted; but 
this seems very doubitul, and in most instances unworthy 
ef belief. 

SMUT. The cause of smut in wheat has been product- 
ive of much investigation and speculation ; but, since the 
means have been discovered of preventing it, we may well 
rest satisfied with this. 

Mr. Young sowed fourteen beds with the same wheat- 
seed, as black with smut, he says, as he ever saw any. The 
first bed was sown with this wheat without washing, and 
this had three hundred and seventy-seven smutty ears ; that 
washed in clean water, three hutidred and twenty-five; that 
in limewater, forty-three; that in lie of wood-isiies, thirty- 
one ; that in arsenic, twenty-eight. Again. That steeped 
in limewater four hours, had twelve ; that in lie four houfs, 
twelve; that in arsenic four hours* one. And again. That 
which was steeped in lie, as before mentioned, twelve 
hours, had none ; and that which was steeped in the same 
kind of lie twenty-four hours,- had none : That also which 
was steeped twenty-four hours in limewater, had none ; that 
steeped in arsenic twenty-four hours, had five. 

Mr, Ecroyd, of Philadelphia county, says that in England 
he saw this experiment fairly tried : Grains of smut were 
pulverised, and applied to wheat which was perfectly clean 
and clear ot smut, and which was then sown, and it produc- 
ed smutty wheat. At the same time, dirty smutty wheat 

44 



S^ FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

was effectually washed in clear spring-water, and sown, ariS 
was entirely tree from smut. 

In order that the wheat be effectually washed, it should 
be put into two or three changes of such water, and well 
rubed and stired about, so as to cleanse the grain entirely 
from the smut. Mr. Ecroyd says the Man who made these 
trials had a premium given him, by a number of i armers, 
for the discovery ; and that, in the way just mentioned, he 
would produce smutty wheat from seed origjinally clean, and 
clean wheat from seed originally smutty, in drills, sown 
alternately in the same field. 

It has been observed that seed-wheat, which has been 
well ripened before harvesting, is much less liable to smut 
than that which has been cm early. Let the wheat for seed 
be the last harvested, and let it be kept by itself, perfectly 
dry, until it is threshed out. Perhaps the better way 
would b»-, to thresh it out in the field when in a very dry 
state. The reason assigned for this is, that smut is believ- 
ed to be somewhat infectious; and that therefore if wheat, 
entirely free of this disorder, be put in a mow with smutty 
wheat, the whole mass will become more or less infected 
with smuty by reason of tlie sweating or heating of the 
mow. V 

Wheat that is very smutty in the field should riot be har- 
vested, until the crop is so fully ripe and dry that it will 
shell out considerably in harvesting; by this mean the grains 
of smut are mostly broken and dissipated by the harvesting 
and threshing. Threshing in the field would no doubt, in 
this case, be preferable; as the drier the crop is, when 
threshed, the more readily would the smut-grains be 
broken. 

, SNOW. In the northern States, snow is very useful in 
protecting Winter-grain and grass from the severity of the 
iVost. Winter-grain or grasses, which have been covered 
through the frosty season, will grow much more rapidly in 
the Spring than those which have lain bare. Snow may, 
however, fall too soon, and lie loo long, for Winter-grain, 
as in that case it is apt to be smothered. 

Snow is useful in preserving all fresh meat, during the 
cold season. Let the meat be first a little frozen on the 
outside, then put it, on a cold day, into casks filled with 
snow, laying the snow between the pieces, so that they will 
not touch each other, nor the sides of the cask. The whole 
ia to be constantly kept liable to the action of the frost; and 
in this way the meat will neither grow dry, nor lose it color^ 
during the frosty season. 



FARMER^s ASSISTANT. ^47 



SOILING OF CATTLE : Feeding cattle in stalls, dur- 
ing ihe growing season, with grass cut and carried in to 
them. It is particularly reconnaiended lor Milch-cows, 
Working-horses, and Oxen, and lor taiing cattle; and Mr. 
Young also recommends that Swine be soiled in a yard tor 
the purpose. 

The advantages of this method of husbandry have been 
experienced in Europe ; and it is strongly recomroendt d by 
Mr. Young, by the Compilers ot ' The Complete Grazier,* 
and by other eminent Farmers of Greatbritain. A commu- 
nication ol Dr. Tlaer^ Physician ol the Electoral Court of 
Hanover, to the English Bo<ird of A,u;riculture, as to th© 
result of the ex{>erience ot the Baron de Bulow and othersj 
lays down the toUowing as facts which, he says, are incon- 
trovertible: 

1. A spot of ground which, when pastured, will yield only suffi- 
cient food for one head, will abundantly maintain four^ when kept 
in the stable.^ 

2. Soiling affords at least double the quantity of manure from the 
same niunber of catt?e ; for the best Summer-manure is produced in 
the stable, and carried to the fields at the most proper peiiod of its 
fermentation; whereas, when spread on the meadow, and exhausted 
by the air and sun, its power is much wasted. 

o. Cbwsjvhich are accustomed to soiling will yield much more 
milk, when kept in this manner; and fating cattle will increase much 
faster in weight. 

4. They are less subject to accidents and diseases; they are pro- 
tected from the fiies which torment them in the fields during warm 
weather; and they do not suffer from the heat of Summer. 

There are other advantages attending this method of 
husbandry. The trouble ot driving the Milch'cows to and 
from tlie pastures, three times a day, is saved; the Work- 
ing-horses and Oxen are always at hand, so that no time is 
lost in going alter them; and, what is of no small import- 
ance, when the cattle are housed the growing crops are in 
more safety. 

For the most profitable cultivation of the earth, it is re- 
quisite that it should be in the highest state of fertility. 
Some manures will enrich a soil to a certain extent; while 
others will make it still richer. Generally speaking, barn- 
dung is the only manure, accessible by every Farmer, with 
which grounds may be fertihzed in the highest degree. 
But how is a sufficiency of this to be had? , 

It all vegetables were buried, while green, in the soil 
where they grew, the manure thui afforded by them, to- 
gether with what additions the soil receives from the air by 
the requisite ploughings, would be constantly increasing its 
fertility. The vegetable mass produced on a farm is indeed 
left on, but with much waste, not only in the drying of the 



348 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

vegetables before they are put into the barn, but in the 
drying and washing ot the clung, and the evaporation of 
its best parts, when lef; in the barn yard, before it is mixed 
with the soil; and by the still greater waste, when dropeti 
in the fields. 

The essential point, then, is to niake and save the great- 
est possible quantity of barn dung manure from a givea 
quat.tity ot ground • and this is only to be accomplished by 
soiling. 

For this purpose, therefore, some of the most intelligent 
European Farmers have barns with ccllirs under them, for 
the purpose ot receiving ihe dung of the cattle, and into 
these the dung and litter are constantly thrown, where they 
are prepared, by a due state of termeniation, for mixing with 
the soil. Suitable earths are also laid behind the cattle to 
absorb their stale as it runs backward, and these« when 
saturated, are also thrown down and mixed with the dung. 
Some, however, object to cellars as the receptacles of the 
dung, on the ground of their being too cool tor the process 
of its fermentation during Summer, and prefer sheds adjoin- 
ing the barn, to keep the dung under cover to protect it from 
the rains. Where cellars are used, they should not be too 
deep, and should be wtU opened for the admission of warm 
air during Summer. iJ'^' 

The quality of the dung of cattle depends much on their 
food ; that therefore which is made from green grass will 
be found superior to that made from dry hay ; that which is 
made from fating cattle is the best of any. 

Having observed thus much, we will proceed to lay down 
a system ol field husbandry, in connection with the plan of 
soiling cattle, which we presume will be found far more 
profitable than the usual method of field-culture. 

Take a fii Id ot proper extent, say, for instance, forty 
acres, as nearly square as may be, and of as nearly uniform 
soil as can be hud, of a good gravelly-loam, sandy, sandy- 
loam, or other good arable soil, and sutficiently level. Clear 
it of stones, so ■d% that it can be tilled in the most complete 
mpner: Build a barn in the centre of this field, with a 
walled cellar under it, with a door to drive in with a cart 
on one side, and another to drive out at the opposite side. 
The barn is to be proportioned to the size of the field, and 
a communication to be made to it on the side most conve- 
nient, by a lane. For a more minute description, a plan of 
the whole is here laid down. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 



349 



E==rc1B: 



10 



11 



12 



A. The lane to the barn. 

B. The barn with a fence round it, communicating with 
the lane. 

C. D. E. Divisions of the field into four equul parts, 
where strips of land are left unploughed wide enough for a 
cart to go upon. 

1. 2. 3. &c. Subdivisions of the field, on which are culii- 
vated crops of roots, grain, and grass, in rotation. 

In this barn stables are to be fixed for keeping a number 
of Milch-cows, Working- horses and Oxen, or fating cartlej 
proportionate to the size and products of the field They 
are to be kept on grass, cut and carried in to them during 
the growing season, and on hay and other food during Win- 
ter. The Cows should be let out each day during the 
three milking times, and all the cattle should have af con- 
stant supply of water from a well made near the barn for 
the purpose. During Summer, the water may be carried 
to the cattle in troughs in the stable, but in colder weather 
the cattle must be let out to troughs of water in the yard. 
As lucerne starts early in the Spring, and grows late in 
the Fall, it will probably be found one of the best grasses 
for early and late feeding. Perhaps some other grasses 
may be found best in particular soils, and for particular 
purposes. 

S^e Grasses. 



350 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

The common trefoil or red-clover (see clover) which is 
mostly cuhivated in this Country, is very good tor soiling. 
The morning's supply of grass should be brought m the af- 
ternoon, and that for the afternoon, in the morning; Uiough, 
if it be a fact that dew is nourishing to cattle, it would seem 
the better way to bring in the whole supply lOr the day in 
the morning. A light hand-can is to be used for bringing 
Id the grass from the parts of the field nearest the barn. 

After such a field has been brought under cpmplete cul- 
tivation, and enriched by this mode of culture, it will proba- 
bly keep, Winter and Summer, about twenty five head of 
Cows, and fating or working cattle. The lucerne may be 
made to yield sufficient for soiling about six head per acre, 
or six or seven tons of hay per acre, if used for that pur- 
pose. The common red-clover may be made to yield up- 
wards of four tons of hay, per acre, at two mowings, and 
is excelent as a lay for other crops. About four hundred 
loads of the best barn dang would probably be afforded 
yearly from such a field, which would be at the rate of ten 
loads per acre each year. 

The extra labor required for cuting and carrying in the 
grass, and cleaning the stalls of the cattle twice a day, during 
Summer, would probably employ one Hand two-thirds of his 
time. In return for this, the Farmer saves the rent of at 
least twelve acres of the best pasiure-land, which may be 
put at five dollars an acre, and his Cows give more milk, 
and his fating and working cattle keep better and thrive 
faster. Here, then, the Farmer is amply repaid for his 
extra labor. But the great superiority of the soiling-system 
lies in this; by the great quantity ot excelent manure, thus 
afforded, the Farmer is enabled to carry on a system of 
field-culture that will be found to average one-halt more of 
clear profii, than can be expected in the usual mode. 

It will be seen, by the drawing of the fit id, that it is t© 
be divided into twelve parts, and that the divisions arfe 
long and narrow : This renders them more convenient for 
ploughing. 

It has been observed, however, that those Cows which 
have t>een always used to be kept by soiling, during the 
growing season, are usually more profitable than those 
which have been newly put to this method of keeping. 

See Appendix, which contains the best system of rotation 
of crops. 

SOOT. Forty bushels of this to an acre, is a good top- 
dressing for almost every kind of Summer-crop, or for 
Winter-crops, when sowed on them in the Spring. Let it 
be powdered fine before it is applied. It is also very good 
ior cold grass-lands. 



FARMER?s ASSISTANT. 351 

it is recommended to be sown over turnips, not only for 
the purpose of manuring the ground, but lor keeping off 
insects. For this purpose, let it be finely pulverizad and 
sown in the morning while the dew is on, and let it be in 
moderate quantity, lest it should injure the young plants, to 
which it will adhere and repel the insects. 
See Manures. 

SOWING. There are three methods of commiiing seeds 
to the ground. 

1. In hills ^ which is usually called plantirig, 

2. In drills^ or continued rows. 

3. In the broadcast method, or a cast of the hand. 
For making seeds vegetate more readily, see Seeds. 

By the drill-method of sowing, nearly one-halt of the seed 
requisite for sowing may be saved ; which, with regard to 
wheat, particularly, is a matter of some consequence. 
See Drill. 

For the proper time of commiting each kind of seed to 
the ground, and the quantity to be sown of each, see the ar- 
ticles of which the seeds are to be sowed. 

A general rule which prevails, in regard to sowing seeds, 
is, that the largest and most full-grown be sown. It is said 
that small seeds produce small stalks and small seeds, and 
large seeds the contrary. This, it is believed, is a matter 
well worth attending to, particularly as it respects the differ- 
ent kinds of grain which are not wholly naturalized to our 
climate or to our soil. 

Sowing too early in the Spring may be as injurious as 
sowing too late; for, if the ground be not well pulverized, 
and sufficiently warmed, before sowing, the seeds will come 
up slowly, and be stunted in their growth. 

M. Duhamel found, by experiments, that few seeds will 
come up, if buried more than nine inches in the soil ; that 
some will rise very well at the depth of six inches; and, 
that others again will not rise if buried two inches. Those 
seeds which, in vegetating, are thrown out of the ground, 
such as beans, &c. ought to be buried lightly; and, in^en- 
eral, it may be observed, that very few seeds require to be 
deeply buried. In light soils, they should be buried deeper 
than in stiff and cold ones. When the ground is rolled, 
alter sowing, seeds will come up with a lighter covering of 
earth, than where this is not done. 

Much depends on having the seeds sowed as evenly as 
possible; and for this purpose they ought to be sowed 
when the weather is not windy, particularly those which 
are light or easily wafted away. In sowing some seeds, it * 
is advisable to go over the ground twice ; sowing one-haif 



852 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

of the intended allowance of seed one way, and the other 
half crosswise* 

Previous to sowinj^, seeds should be soaked in sonne fer** 
tilizing liquor J and tor this purpose a solution of saltpetre 
with lie of wood ashes and old urine is believed to be 
best ; but, in such case, let the seeds be sowed immediately^ 
or they will not readily vegetate. Mr. Johnson found his 
crops of wheat and Indian corn greatly bentfied by soaking 
the seeds in a solution of saltpetre and lie of wood ashrs 
alone. Let the seeds be soaked about twelve hours in 
inost cases ; but, for preventing smut in wheat, about 
twenty-four hours are necessary. 
See Smut 

Let the seeds be dried, before sowing, with a sprinkling 
of gypsum; or lime, or wood-ashes, may be used, when 
gypsum IS not to be had. ;: > 

Grain that is designed for sowing should always be kept 
well aired ; for,'if deprived of this for a considerable length 
of time, it will not vegetate. Mr. Miller took fresh seeds 
of different kinds : A part of each he put into vials, and 
sealed them so as to exclude the air; and the rest he kept 
exposed to it. After a twelvemonth, he sowed each on dif- 
ferent parts of the same bed; when all those came up that 
were exposed to the air, but none of those which were ex- 
cluded from it. 

Where land is very rich, it ought generally to have more 
seed than if it be poor; and it the size ot the grains be 
large, the quantity sown should be greater than where they 
are small. 

SPAVIN. A swelling about the joints of Horses, caus- 
ing lameness. There are two kinds of this disorder; a 
blood-spavin and a bag-sps^yin. The former is a swelling of 
the vein that runs along tlie inside of the middle joint of 
the hind leg's, which is frequently attended with a lameness 
of the joint. 

To cure it, says Mr. Gibsm^ first apply restringents, and 
a bandage tightly drawn roufta the joint; for these, if early 
appilfed, will generally effect a cure ; but, if by these means 
the Vein is nX)t reduced to its usual dimensions, the skin 
should be opened, and the vein tied with a crooked needle 
and wax-ihreiad, passed underneath, above and below the 
swelling, and the turgid part will then digest away with the 
ligatures. Let the wound be daily dressed with a mixture 
of turpentine, honey, and spirit of wine. 

The bag- spavin is merely a cyst, or bag, filled with the 

'^^gelatinous matter of the joint, irrupted from its proper 

plaee. To cure this, cut into the b>^g, and let the matter 

discharge ; then dress the sore- with lint diped in oil of tur- 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 35S 

pentine, puting into it, once in three or four days, a powder 
made of Calcined vitriol, alum, and bole By this method 
of dressing, the bag will come away» and a cure will be 
effected without any visible scar. 

Should this fail of a cure, the hot iron is directed to be 
applied ; and in that case, if the joint become !« flanned, 
apply a poultice over the dressings, till the swelling be re- 
duced. 

SPAYING. It is recommended to* spay -Sows, as this 

prevents conception and will cause them tQ^ have mjore fat 

-than the barrows. Heiteri are also spayed in Greatbritain, 

^wjhere they are raised ntier^ ly for fating. The method of 

ptrforming this, with tffect, is best lea^tie^ by practice. 

^PELT f7>zV?c7^m,-^e/m> This grain, is much used 
for bread, in GtMmany< and is the frumeptacious tribute 
which ^the ancien! Rinnans exacted from theV^People oi that 
Coufjjtry, while it tarnned a part of tht R )man Empird It 
is considerably cuUivared by the German Farm'rs in Penin- 
sylvania Its product is about ti)e same a^ 'hat of wheat; 
but the flijur made from it is of a yellower ct l(jr^ and there- 
fore not so valuable iij ihe markets, though pt-rnaps equ lly 
good for comnnon family iise. The grain is to be hull d 
before grinding; and, as the skirr^f it is very thinfiif^ it is 
very productive, in flour. r \'^ 

Its ailvantages over wheat are, that it is much less liable' 
to be Winier-killed in moist lands, where wheat is apt to be 
drawn up by th^ roots by the frost. It will grow on the 
richest soils, without lodgijig; and it will also grow well on 
soils too^poor, or dry, to bear wheat to any advantage.'' It is 
usually sown in Pennsylvania about the 20th of September; 
though it is said t,hat it may be cultivated as a Spring-crop. 
Dry soils are said to be mo^t suitable for this grain. Pro- 
bably it might be cultivated to advantage ifr Newengland, 
and elsewliere, where wheat does not flourish. 

SPIKY-ROLLER. This instrument is tnoch recpm- 
mended, by some E[>glish Writers, for meljowing clay- 
ground that is baked in clods. It Is. also recommended to 
be passed bver fields of whea,t, in the Springs, fgir the pur- 
pose of loosening the ground ; and then to be^ folio wed by a^ 
brush-harrowing. This wpuld,' no doubt, be~ vei-y useful ; 
and 'would afford a fine opportunity for sowitig cloverseed 
on tf»e crop. Its further ^use is, to tear anji loosen old grass-? 
bound meadows, fqr the purpose of making the grass gW)V 
more thriftily. r^ ^ s< 

It is merely a wooden roller with, iron teeth, or spikes^ 
sirove into it. They are to be about seven inches long^, and 

45 



f 



354 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

drove three inches into the wood, and set four inches apan^ 
in diagonal rows round the roller. The outer ends are not 
to be sharp but square. 

SPROUTS. Where woods are cut off which are apt t© 
sprout, the best way is to persevere in destroying the 
sprouts as fast as they appear; because the longer they are 
suffered to grow, the more difficult it becomes to extirpate 
them, particularly in wet meadow-lands., In these, the dif- 
ficulty is inci*eased on account of their taste being less 
palatable than those of uplands ; and therefore cattle are 
less inclined to eat them. In such grounds, the best way is 
to cut off the sprouts four or five times in the first season, 
and this will pretty much destroy them. II a swamp can 
be flooded two or three years, it will effectually destroy 
sprouts and every other growth; or if it can be drained dry, 
it so alters the. nature of the soil, that its growth of wood 
soon inclines to die, for want of us usual moisture. 

The best method of destroying sprouts, is to beat ^them 
of| from the stumps. This can be done with the pole of an 
axe; and the more a stump is battered, and its bark beat 
off rSund the roots, the mwe tffectually will the further 
growth ot sprouts be preverited. 

Elder bushes may be completely destroyed, by cuiing.off 
the sprouts five times in any one year. 
See. further, Weeds. 

SPUR. A disease in rye. The grains which are affected 
with it are larger than the rest, mostly crooked, bitter to 
the taste, projecting beyond their, husks,^ dark- colored, rough, 
and ded^ply furrowed from end to end. 

This kind of diseased grain sometimes proves very de- 
structive to those who eat it. 
See Rye. 

STABLE AND STALLS. The stable should be «o well 
enclosed as to defend the bgasts from the winds and storms; 
an4 at the same time it slibuld not be too warm, lest it 
mak^ them tender, whe^n exposed to the weather. . 

Trie stable should have a good floor, descendiipg a little 
backwards^ so J.hat the stale will run off beliind. It should 
b*e divided into separate apartments, or stalls, for each beast 
10 stahd by itself. There should be a good manger for 
Horses, and the rack. which holds their hay should be up- 
right and not too high. Some prefer puting the hay into a 
very large raansrer, or trough, made for the purpose- and 
Whit is left by Worses can be given to other cattle, as they 
will eat it very readily. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 355 

Stables should be kept cleaa and well littered, to keep 
the beasts comtortable when they lie down. Some advise 
boring holes through the floor, to let off the st le more 
readily. For Horses, there should be sufficient roonri in ihe 
stalls lo turn their heads to every part ol their bodiei^, and 
to raise them as high as they please. 

STAGGERS. A disease in some kinds of cattle. If the 
staggering ot a Horse be owing to hard usage, Gibson di- 
rects to take a piiit of blood trom his neck, and then a quart 
from some vein in his hinder parts, and that he be then kept 
en moderate cleansing diet. i 

When the disease arises from an apoplectic disorder, he 
must be treated as before, and exercised every day wuh^ 
chewing assafaeiid'aj^ savin, and all other noisome things, 
^hictt'wiil keep him in constant action, and forward the 
circulation of the blood in t^e small A^essels. Aticrwards, * 
recourse niust be had to clysters, strong purgatives, rubing, 
and exercise. ^ 

YW$en it arises fijom a swiming of the head, the animal 
reels, turns round, and falls. For thi§, take an ounces of 
senna, boiled in five pir^ts of water, with four ouqiges of 
common treacle, and the usual quantity of oils or lard, to 
throw m as a clyster; and repeat thi^ for two or three days. 
After t^is he may have a drench of b6er, in which the roots 
of poeny, angelica, rue, rosemary, and flowers of lavender 
have been steeped. If the disease continue obstitiate, balls 
of cinnibar, and assafoetida, with bayberries, will be proper 
here, as in apoplectic cases. - 

Mr. Gibson condemns the practice of putirtg ginger and 
other stimulating things into tlie ear, as^ dangeroM^though 
it may sometimes prove beneficial. ^^ 

STEAMBOILER. This is an Implement that np Farmer 
er Planter should be without^ as potatoes, partictilariy, are 
nearly <jfoubled in value, for feeding and fating, when boiled. 
Turnips and other roots, and pumpkins, are also much im- 
proved, as food tor cattle, by '^a similar process. 

Boiled clover hay is found very goocl ior' keeping Swine, 
during Winter; and we are of opinioH, that if fed to Milch- 
cows, during that season, it would greatly improve the 
quantity of their milk, £ind ke^p them in better order, than 
"When fed dry to them. VA* believe this to be well worthy 
of a fair experiment, by having a vat, or box, to hold the 
hay, sufficiently large for the purpose- 

A steamboiler is connimonly made by seting a kettle, hold- 
ing twelve gallons or more, in a furnace, of brick or stohe, 
and over this 'a hogshead, with one jiead taken out, and the 
•ther iiored full of holes, is set so close that^th^ steam of 



35^ FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

'it-. 
the kettle» when boiling,^an c ly rise ihroupjh the holes, 
and ihence ascend among the amcJes to be boiled in ihe 
hogshead, and pass off ai ihe »op. In this way a hog^h^ad 
full ot potatoes will be nearly as soon boiltd, as a small part 
of them only could have been, if placed in the kettle under- 
neath. 

As the kettle must be so closed as to prevent any steam 
passing off, bus through the bottom ot the hogshead or vat, 
a pii>fc or lube must be set in one side, through which, with 
the aid of a funnel, the water is to be poured into the ket- 
tlt , as otten as occasion may require. When poured in, the 
* tube is lo be stoped, vi^iih a plug tor the purpose. 

Grain of all kinds may be stf^amboiled lo great advantage, 
for teeding and fating cattle; but, in that case, it is rtquisite 
to have the bottom of the liogbht;ad coveted wi h arCloth| 
^to prevent the grain runing down through the holes. 

By ixperiments which have been Accurately macfe, in 
Pennsylvania, upon Indian corn and potatoes, used for fat- 
ing Swine, it was tound that they increased in weight 'bne- 
third faster on the boiled, than on the unboiled food; or, in 
other words, they g;>in]B<l three pounds when fed on the 
former^ where 'hey ouly gained two pounds "when fed on the 
latter. We are fully ot opinion, thaksteamboiling food, for 
feeding or fating all sorts -of cattle, generally increases the 
value of the food, as much as forty or filty per cent. 

We are induced to lay this down, as a general i^ule, that 
, ^11 kinds, of food^ whether iar Man,^or beast, is more or less 
improved in it& nutrimental qualities, by being boiled. This' 
is evidently the case, in regard either to grain, or roofs; 
and we believe that every kind of vegetable n^atter, even 
green grass itself, will be found much improved^_ as a food 
lor cattle, when it has been stjfficiently subjected to the 
operation of the steamboiler. But, whether the additional 
expense thus incured would, in all cases, be fbund over- 
balanced by the additional valud thus given to the food, 
must depend on the results of experiments to be fairly arid 
properly made. ^ ,_ ' 

StJ^ERCORARY. This is constructed for the purpose of 
preparing barn dung for use, by roting and feTmenting. It 
is simply a shed, of suitable height and dimensions, with a 
iloor. or bottom,, made for the purpose of saving all the 
liquor of the dung; for this liquid is found to be very valu- 
able, as a manure. The floor of a cider press is sufficient 
to give an adequate idea of the proper manner of forming 
a floor for a stercorary. It is to have a gutter lo catch 
1) the liquor, and a cistepn to contain it ; and, when thus col- 
lected, is either to^ be thrown back on the heap ot dung, 
or used in composts, or otherwise, as may be found most 



FARME^R's, ASSISTANT. 357 

expedient. This liquor, if not thus preserved, by the floor 
ol the stercorary, suiks away into the ground on which the 
heap ot dung is laid, and is almost ^ntirely lost. 

The shed is for keeping off the rains, wuich by constantly 
falling on, and soaking away through the duug, carry much 
ot us richest parts into the ground below. The shed may 
be of cheap construction. The roof may be ot bdards, ;.r of 
slight thatch-work, as it is not essential that it shouli be 
wholly impervious to the rains. 

The floor should be made so solid and oerapact, that 
little or no water couid pass through it. It snould be a 
little rising from ttie gutter, on every side, to the middle. 
One made of pounded clay, of suitable thickness, and then 
closely paved on the top with stones is perhaps as good arid 
as dufable as any. Ii sliouid be pavcd^ to enable carts to 
go uporr it for unloading the dung, when it is lo be laid 
there for preparing; as well as lor carrying it away, when 
prepared. 

The dung should be laid in the stercorary to the height 
of, say, five feet. It should be laid lightly, without any 
further compression xhan.. that ot its own weight. It it be 
stired ujx^ from the bottom, once at least, the process of its 
preparation will be proportionately accelerated. The ster- 
corary may also be found very useful in preparing composts, 
where barn-dung is an ingredient. 
See further. Manures. 

It is believed that tor a»i crops which are most assisted 
by roten barn dung, or by composts, in which barn-dung 
forms a very Icopsitjerable proportion, a great savinfg may be 
made by roting and fermenting the manure in a stercorary. 
One of the dimensions of eighteen feet by forty -tiv^ would 
probably be found sufficient for preparing one hundred and 
filiy tons of manure at a time;- and the expense ot such a 
building ne6d not exceed one nundred dollars. ^ 

From the best information we have been able to obtain^ 
■we are induced to believe that barn-dung, m particular, 
when prepared in a stercorary, Avill be lound' worth one- 
fourth more, than if merely roted in a heap, uncovered^ on 
the bare ground. It should also be remembered, that' the 
stercorary may be so constructed, and situated, as to be 
Used for a sheep-pen, during Winter. - 

^TOCK. When an English Farmer spekks of stocking 
a farm, he means the requisite number of plougbS) harrows, 
cans, and other implenients of husbandry, beside catile of 
different kinds, for carrying on the business of huhbaudry 
on that farm to advantage; in the same way that a Merchant 
or Manufacturer speaks of the stockj^ or capital, whic^i is 
requisite to carry on any branch of trade or manufacture. 



358 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

But Farmers in this Country, being but little used to rent- 
ing farms, do but seldom enter into calculations of this 
kind ; and by this mean the word stock has here acquired a 
ditTerent meaning, in regard to farming-business; u means 
merely the number of cattle of different kinds which a 
Farmer keeps on his farm. It would, nevertheless, be well 
foir those who are obliged to rent farms, in this Country, to 
examine first whether they can acquire the requisite stock 
for any farm, agreeably to the English meaning, before they 
attempt to hire; as by not having this they often injure 
themselves, as well as their Landlords. 

Y)ung stock are always more profitable than old; as 
these, when turned off to fat, do not answer so well as those 
which are but little past their prime. It costs more to faten 
old cattle, and their meat is not so valuable. ^ 

Stock should be suitable to the soil on which they are 
fed. If their pastures be chiefly dry hills, Sheep is the best. 
If they be grounds fit for the cultivation of clover, and vari- 
ous other grasses, the dairy, or fating of cattle, may be best. 
And if they be wet grounds, which only produce coarse 
grasses, the raising of Horses will^be found most profitable. 
The profit of raising Horses dep»«tnds much on the Breed- 
ing mares, and also on the price which can be obtained for 
Horses. Generally speaking, the Farmer will do bettpr in 
turning his attention to the best breeds of Sheep, if his 
pasture-lands be suitable. The dairy is also profitable, 
where propprly managed with regard to the milk; and also 
with regard to raising a due proportion of Swine, with the 
aid of cloveii?, and^ the skim-milk, whey, and buttermilk 
together. 

iSee' Dairy and Swine. ^_ 
But as stocks of cattle are, found to degenerate, unless 
pains be taken to prevent it, an essential point of husbandry 
lies in taking the proper steps for improving ihe breeds. 
Some Cows will give double the quantity of milk vi^hich 
others give, and of better quality. Some Bulls l^eget much 
finer and larger Calves than others. Some Shfep bear 
more wool, and of better quality, than others; and some 
Rams beget Lambs possessing thfese qualities in a superior 
degree to others. Similar observations may be made of 
some breeds of, Horses and of Swine. The essential point, 
therefore, iSj^iof the Farmer to be diligent in selecting 
those breeds ^Wbich are found to be most valuable, as well 
from those raised ip his 6wn stock, as from those which 
may be obtained elsewhere. Let him persevere in constant- 
ly selecting the best breeds for a stock, rejecting all others, 
and he will presently find his Stock very greatly improved. 

In Greatbritain, much pains are taken to improve the 
breeds, of cattlej and the success .attending suqii exertions 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 359 

are very encouraging. In some of their agricultural publi- 
cations, mention is made of prodigious prices being given 
for certain animals of superior bi^ed; such as a Bull, of 
Mr. Paget^ having been sold in the year 1793 for tour hun- 
dred guineas; Heifers belonging to him, for eighty-tour 
guineas a piece; and Ewes, for sixty four guineas a piece. 
In Monk's Agricultural Dictionary^ there is also menii^ 
made of a Mr. Richard Ashley having Swine, the Boars of 
which he let to Sows at halla guinea each; and of a Mr. 
JBishofi, who sold his Pigs, at weaning-time, tor two guineas 
a piece. Such examples might also be produced here, if 
the requisite pains were taken; and the profirs attending 
them are surejy sufficient to gratify even avarice itself. 

Above all, let the Farmer keep no greater stock than he 
can support well. The half of any" given number of cattle, 
where they are well kept, will always be found to yield as 
much'clear profit to the Owner, as the whole when kept in 
pcfer condition. Poor keeping also learns cattle to be un- 
ruly; and when they have learned this effectually, they only 
prove a bill of expense, instead of an article of profit, to 
the Owner. ;rU. 

.. / >^ 

STONES. Where arable lands particularly abound with 
these, ho good culture can be carried on. The first step 
then is to clear such lands of the stones, and let this be 
done eflTectually; carrying off the small ones and diging 
put the larg^ ones, so that there be no obstructions no the 
plough- , fe J > 

Some lands may indeed be too stony to be cleared of 
them to any present advantage. Let such be left to the 
prowess of future generations; they will undoubtedly find 
their account in clearingusuch, and find use for the stones. 
If they be not all wanted for fences, buildings, Scq. they 
may be found useful in making hollow drains, gcc* 

If stones be very badly shapen, so that they will not lie 
in a wall, perhaps the better way may be to throw them 
aside, and make hedge-fences; but if they be chiefly well 
shaped, let them be made into walls ; for these, if properly 
made, will last an age, with some trifling repairs. The best 
method of making these is to dig a trench, where the wall 
is to be made, to the depth of about eighteen inches ; into 
this throw all the small and bad-shaped stones, until the 
ti'ench is filled ; then on the top of these build the wall, in 
a mason-like manner, to the height of about five feet, and 
throw the earth dug out of the trench up against the wall 
on each side ; and in this way it will stand for a length of 
lime beyond the memory of Man. it a trench be not dug 
in this manner, the next best method is to plough deep 



360 FARMER'^ ASSISTANT. 

trenches close on each side of the wall, after it is built, and 
throw the earth, thus ploughed up, against the wall. 

Where stones are very large, and cannot be removed 
without breaking them^' the best way is to split th<m to 
pieces. For this purpose, drill two holes in opposite sides, 
according to the grain of the stone ; then fill each hole with 
ty»p half cylindrical pieces of iron, and between these drive 
along steel wedge. In this way large stones or rocks may 
be split out into proper shapes for good building-stones, or 
for other purposes. Building fires on large stones will also 
render them liable to be broken to pieces, while they are 
thus heated. 

By experiments accurately made, it is found, that small 
stones on the surface of the ground are beneficial, in a small 
degree, in increasing its 4>roducts ; but they are too trouble- 
some, in e^ood cultivation, to be desirable on accountvof all 
the benefit to be deiived from them.' , ^ > 

Where ground is full of sm sll stones, they ma^^ be drove 
down so as to be out of the way of the isithe, by having a 
roller passed over the ground in the Spring, when it is very 
soil, as the stones are then easily pressed into it. 

STOCKING OR shocking' Let ten sheaves be dis- 
posed in two rows, each leaning against the other; then 
let two sheaves be laid on the top, so as that the but of one 
lies under the, but of the other, having the heads hanging 
downwards. In this way, wheat or other ^rain will iteep 
very well. Another method is to make little stacks, of an 
hundred sheaves or ijiiore in each. TJiey are made with 
the heads inmost and, uppermost ; and,, over the top of the 
"Whole, a lari^e sheaf is tied close to the but-end, and the 
otner end spread all round the topxof the stack, to preserve 
it, from the rains This is, no doubt, the best, method for 
saving the, grain from the effects of long and heavy rains. 

STRAIN OR SPRAIN.^ ^Horses are liable to strains, 
particularly in their shoulders. Anointing theni witb spirits 
of turpentine, in the part injured, will help them for a 
while; but will not afford a permanent relief Washing the 
shoulder, when that part is affected^' With brine, as warm as 
it can well be borne, will effect a cure in a few days. Do- 
ing ir twice a^ay, and leting the animal rest from labor, 
will generally'lpej'form a^ure in a few weeks, at farihest. ' 
If these will not answer, let warm poultices be applied, Of 
bran, boiled in <,yinegar, with a sufficiency of hogslard to 
prevent its growing hard; let this be repeated, if necessary, 
until the cure is completed; and then mind to keep (hat 
part covered a while, so that it shall not be affected by' 
colds. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 38 i 



STRAWBERRY (Fragaria ) The Chili, the hautboy, 
the wood^ dhd thtt scarlet straivbetry^ are all esteem, d ; but 
the latter is mostly cuUivaicd- A light loamy soil is best 
for raising them; and it should not be dunged much, lest 
they run too much, and of course be less truiitul. ^ 

They arc first to be sowu trom the seeds, in a bed, whicb 
is to be kept dean of weeds. In this they are to be kept 
three years, before transplanting. They are to be trans- 
planted in September or the begining of Oc ober. The 
ground into which they are to be transplanted is to be laid 
out into beds, four feet wide, with alleys between them, of 
the width ol two f* ct. Tht plants are to be set fifteen 
inches apart, in rows each way. Mr Miller says, 

* The plants should never be taken from old neglected 
beds, where the plants have been suffi red to run into a 
mi^ltitude of suikcrs; that those sl\ouid be avoided which 
are not fruittui; and those offi^ets which stand nearest to 
the old plants siiould be preftred to those which are pro- 
duced from the trailing stalks at a greater distance.' 

When they become , unfruitful, which is generally at the 
end of three years, they lliust be again transplanted. 

Mr. Miller directs, that the vines be kept clear of weeds 
during the Summer; that all the runers, or suckers, be 
pulled off as fast as they appear; and ihey will produce 
a plentiful crop the next Spiing after planting The old 
plants produce the fruit; the suckers yield none until after 
a full yeai's growth; and they serve to rob the old pi mts 
ef that nourishment which is so essential to their fruit- 
fulness. 

In Autumn, let the plants be again divested of their 
strings and runers, and the beds be a^ain cleared of weeds. 
Mr. Miller directs that some Taner's bark be then spread 
over the ground, and this, when afterwards buried in the 
soil, will serve as a dressing fof the vines. He fui'tber di- 
TectSj that some moss be spread round under the vines, to 
keep the fruit from the ground. Straw will answer as well, 
for this purpose. 

An improved method of, cultivating the Alpine strawberry, ^ 
is as follows: ^' ^ 

* Sow the seed on a moderate hotbed in the begining of 
April, and, as soon as the plants have acquired sufficient 
strength, transplant them in open beds. They will begin 
to blossom after midsummer, and afford an abundant au- 
tumnal crop.' ' ♦ 

Mr. Knight, who reports. the foregoing method of vtreat- 
ment, thinks, that this plant should always be cultivated as 
an annual one. 

4fi 



^62 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

Gypsum has a most powerful effect, when applied as a 
top-dressing, or otherwise, lo sirawberry-plants, not only in 
increasing their growth, but also their product in fruit. 

STUBBLE. Where the stubble is largje, as it will be 
vH^re the grain is Itr^e, and is reaped, the ground will be 
\Wy considerably ben* fittd by ploughing it under as soon 
as the grain is taken off; whereas, if it be suffered to stand 
until it is perfectly dried, and all the juices evaporated, it 
will then do the ground little or no good. In this way, t0(^, 
the seeds of many weeds a' e prevented from ripening. 

But the Reader will observe, in the Georgics of Virgil, 
that the Author of that elegant Work particularly insists on 
burning off the stubble, in preference to ploughiJig it under, 
as being nnore bentficial to the succeeding crop, and as 
having a greater eflF;^ct in fertilizing the land. 

Mr. Peters, of Pennsylvania, is also of this opinion. He 
«ays that if straw, or other rubish, be spread over land, and 
then burned off. it will assist the soil more than if the same 
straw or rubish were suffered lo rot on the ground This 
we believe to be correct ; but, whether, it be more advisable 
to let stubble stand till it is dry, aii^Hhen burn it off, in pre- 
ference to turning it under, before it has dried, is a matter 
that is perhaps well worthy of accurate experiment. 

It should be observed, however, that some British Farm- 
ers prefer gathering the stubble for the purpose of litter, in 
which way it is converted into good manure, by absorbing 
the Stale and juices of the dung of the cattle, much of which 
might be lost for want of something of this kind to retain 
it: But, whether the dearness of labor in this Country 
would warrant the expense, we are not prepared to say. 
Certain it is, however, that, where cattle are properly kept_, 
a sufficient quantity of litter would seem to be indis- 
pensable. 

SUGARCANE (Jrundo Sacqharifera.) There are va- 
rieties of this plant ; but all pontain the juice from which 
sugar is made. It requires a rich, deep, mellow soil. The 
ash-colored soil of St. Christopher's, and the red loam of 

* the north side of Jamaica, liave been found the best in the 

* Westindies, for its culture. There is at present but a small 
proportion of .our territory, where the climate is sufficiently 
mild for cultivating the cane to advantage; though it is be- 
lieved that its culture may be gradually extended to the 
north, as the plant becomes better adapted to the climate in 
whict^ it is grown. 

For instarjce, let it be planted a mile farther north every 

<^ succeeding year, and in this way it will gradually become 

contracted in its growth, and in the time required for grow- 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 3^3 

ing it, until it might even, perhaps, be matured in the short 
Summers ot Canada. As U would lessen lu growth, it 
woirtd, like Indian corn, admit ot being planted more close- 
ly, and thus about the same quantity ot cane WiiUid be ob- 
tained trom ihc acre. 

The Imids m this Country, which are best adapted to the 
euUure of this plant, are chiefly ihose which are almmx]^ 
and the rich loams, which are gcnerully dark«coiored, being 
mixed wiih greater or less proportions ot vegetable ea.th. 
Rich saudy or gravelly loams v»iil probably answer very . 
well. The soils on which Indian corn flourislies most are, 
we believe, well adapted for the cane. Whether it could 
be successlully cultivated on lighter lands, with the aid of 
gypsum, has probably never been ascertained; though we 
have iiitle reason to doubt that this manure would act as 
powertully on this as on many oiuer plants. 

As there is but a small portion ot this Country adapted, 
at present, tor the culture of the cane, so that perhaps not 
one in ten thousand of our Agricuhunsis is likely to be en- 
gaged in the pursuit ; and as the whole process ot raising 
the plant, and its subsequent management, would, if detail- 
ed ail lull length, considerably enlarge t^is volume i we 
must reter those who may siand in need of information, on 
this subject, to Mr. Edwards* History of the Westindies : 
But, toi more accurate intormation, we would advise such 
to learn, trom. those engaged in this employment, the parti- 
cular details of the culture, and process, as adapted to this 
Country, and improved since the lime when Mr. Edwards 
wrote the Work m question. 

The method most proper for raising the cane in this 
Country, as well as the time in which it is to be cultivated, 
are each different trom what prevails in the Westindies. 
Here the plough should be the principal implement used in 
the culture; there, it is, partly from old habits, and partly 
from tiie steepness and rougnness ol much of the land, 
mostly pertormed with the hoe. Great improvements have 
also been made in this Country, m the process ot distiling) 
since the publication of the Work in question. 

I'ne culture of the cane on the lands in this Country, 
which are adapted for it, is at present very profi able ; and 
this will probably induce many lO drive the business to the 
utmost extent, to the ultimate exhaustion of the lands. It . 
was formerly a common saying, among southern Cultivat- 
ors, of tobacco in particular, that by wearing out one farm 
enough could be made to purchase tour new ones. Accord- 
ingly, mucn valuable land- was laid waste, tor the sake of 
immediate gain; and practising on this plan is still .5ut too | 
prevalent in the Southern States. Lands arc there common- 
ly used in a most barbarous manper. 



364 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

At present* however, when lands must soon be rapidlf 
rising, he who expects to be the gainer, by exhausting his 
lands, will find himself much mistaken. The sun ntver 
shone on ah acre ot land that was too tertik tor the most 
profitable cultivation. Commonly, even nt w lands are much 
too poor to aflFord the greatest profits Instead, theretore, 
otjyearing out new lands, it should ever be the aim ot tne 
Pflmter to increase their tertility. 

By the extensive cuhure ot the Guinea-grass (see Gui- 
"NEA grass) in the Southern Stares, cattle may be raised in 
IhyridiU , ^nfi wnh great profit i so that there need be no 
want of mar>ur« tor the lands, and lands certainly cannot be 
made too rich for growing the cant. 

We would tnertfore advise the Planters of that Country 
to beware of exhau.sting their lands iri the culture of this 
plant, or any other; but to turn nmch of their attention to 
raising cattle, by means ol the power|ul aid just mentioned; 
and this will itff rd the requisite mariiife to keep the lanj^s 
in the highest degree ol if rtility, and of course afford me 
greatest piufi. . so that one acre may yield more clear gain, 
than is commonly detived from four; in the usual Gultul^e of 
cane in impoverished lands. 

SU^FLO^^ER. flleiianthus J It is found, that th© 
seeds ot tliis pldiii afford an oil tqual to that ot tlie olive- 
tree; and it is said, that seventy bushels ot this seed may 
be raised from an acre. The plant will grow in almost ah^y 
soil thnt is sutficienily strohg The seeds are gobd for 
feeding poultry, during ^lie Winter season 

From a bushel of this seed, says the Editor of * The 
Watchman,' a gallon of o)l, as fine as that which we import 
from Fiorcnce, may be obtained at any time, q-iie soft, 
bland, and fresh; and the mass that remains, after pressing 
out the oil. is ot excelent use to feed hogs, poultry, &c. He 
further observes, that the Inhabitants of unwholsome places 
should be diligent in cultivating this plant.' on account of 
the vast quantity ol oxygene gas which it produces; it 
having been provedif ihaf near twenty times as much dt^is 
gas is produced in twenty-four hours by one plant, in light 
and clear weather, as a Man t*espires, in an impure aimos- 
*phere, in that space of time. 

The Editor of the ' Emfiorium of Arts'' has also noticed 
this native American plant, at considerable length; and 
suggests, with others, who have made trials ot it in Eng- 
land, other valuable uses to which it may be applied; such 
as the fibres of the bark or skin, as a substitute for hemp; 
the stalks, when green, for the purpose ot wattling, &c. andl 
when clried, as <*\\ article ot tuel , an acre yielding from 
tiliree to nine wagon-loads; the pith as affording good tin- 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 365 

« 
der, and the leaves, when green, as excelent food for Rab< 
bits, and serving iof litter when dried. ^ 

Tticre are eighi kinds ot ihis plant as enumerated by Mr* 
Grten, in his Catalogue oi Amtncan Plants ; bdt the larg- ' 
est kuid is recomniendtd ior culture. It sriould be raised 
in rows, and culiivaied in the manner of hoed crops !■ is 
easily ruined, and gailiertd ; the crop is a very sure one, 
and lubjtct to licile or no iitjury from rains, or otherwise, 
if lett standing <tor some days after it is fully ^ipe. It, how- 
ever, does not ripen all at the same time. , % 

Tue oil is extracted trom the seed in the same manner 
as that ol fl. xsced ; it answers well tor printing, a'nd for 
painiinK; ^nd the cake is good for iating cattle, beside the 
uses betore mentioned. 

It IS believed that the culture of this plant, on an exteo 
sive scale, would be found very profiiable. 

JURFEIT. A disease to whiqh cuttle, and particularly 
ses, are liable. In Horses, it is generally the tfftct of 
intense labor, or overheating. The skin becomes dry and 
full of dander, or of scabs, it the disease be more inveterate.. 
The hair of the animal statids out, and he has a dull slug- 
gish look. 

Some have merely this look, and appearanc^of the hair, 
while they grow lean and hidebound, without any irruptions 
of the skin. Some have what is called a wet surieii, in 
which case sharp thin humors run from the scabs. This is 
often attended with great heat, i» flanajmations, and sudden 
swellings ot the neck, which causes great quantities of bri- 
ny liquor to issue from that part ; and, if not allayed, will 
collect on the withers, and produce the fistula, or about 
the head, and prodiice the poiievil. 

To cure the dry surte^t, the Author of * T/ie Comfilete 
Farmer* directs, first, to take away three or tour pounds of 
blood, and then give the following purge, which will work 
as an alterative, and should be repeated once a week, tor 
some time: . *:i^ 

i|Take succotrine aloes, six drachms, or one ounce ; gum 
gUOTcum, half an ounce ; diaphoretic antimony, and powder 
of myrrh, of each two drachms; and make the whole into a 
ball with syrup of buckthorn.* 

In the intermediate days, an ounce of the following pow- 
der should be given, morning and evening, with his feed. 

* Take native cannabar, or cinnabar of antimony, finely * 
powdered, half a pound ; crude antimony, in fine powder, 
four ounces ; gum guaicum, in powder, tour ounces ; make 
the whole into sixteen doses, tor eight days.* » 

The medicine must be repeated till the Horse coats well, 
and the symptoms ot the disease disappear. If the scabs do 



2U FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

i, 

not come off", anoint them with mercurial ointment. This 
ointmenf alone, well rubed into the blood, and aided by 
purges, will also commonly effect a cure. 

For the ^et surfeit, bleed plentifully, avoiding externally 
all repelers, and in the morning, while fasting, give cooling 
physic twice a week, composed ot four ounces of lenitive 
electuary, four of cream ot tartar, and tour ot Giiiuber's 
salts, quickened with a little jdlap. 

After three or four of these purgings, give two ounces, 
itfinure, made into a ball with honey, every morning for a 
fortnighr ; and, if successful, repeat this a fortnight longer. 
The above may also be given with the tood ot the Horse j 
or a strong decoction ot logwood may be given alone, at 
the irate of two quarts a day. Where the disease proves 
obstinate, the medicine must be continued a considerable 
length of time, to prove effectual. 

The Horse should be kept dry, ap|^. his food should be 
cool and opening. If^he be hidebound, give him fenugr^jjjk 
seeds, lor some time. Where the disorder proceeds from 
worms, gi-ve the mercurial physic, and afterwards th&.cin- 
nabar powder, as above directed. 

The Author fro;i(i whose work the above directions afe 
taken, observes, however, that as tl^^disease is not always 
original, but attendant on others, in the cure, regard should 
be had to the first cause, and thus the removal of the com- 
plaint may be variously effected. 

SWARD. A stii|f green-sward is an infallible indication 
of the ground being in good condition for bearing a good 
crop; but it is not an equally certain indication of a good 
soil ; as the sward may be the effect of strong manuring. 
Some soils again which incline to moss, when they have 
lam untilled lor some time, exhibit a greater degree of 
poverty than they really possess Earths, however, which, 
without manuring, bear a stiff green-svvard, may always be 
pronounced good, whatever may be their color; but per- 
haps only good for certain productions. 

A stiff sward, well turned over, will generally bes^ a 
pretty good crop, of any growth which is suitable toahe 
soil; as the roting of the sward keeps up a fermentation in 
the soil nearly equal to that which is produced by repeated 
ploughings. This remark, however, more properly applies 
to rich mellow soils : Those that are naturally stiff or hard, 
will not generally ferment sufliciently to bear a good crop, 
by the mere roting of the sward. 

A. clover-sward, that has been mowed and well turned 
over, makes a very fine lay for wheat, where the soil is not 
too stiff or bard ; but, where the clover has been fed off, it 
Is not considered quite so good ; as in that case the ground 

t ^ 



IS 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 367 

becomes harder by the treading of the cattle. Much, how- 
ever, in that case depends on the natural mellowne# ot the 
soil. 

Clover forms but a crumbly sward; timothy is stiffer; 
but the English bluegrass (fioa compressa) toi ms one of 
the strongest. This, where it is very strong, and the soil 
♦full of vegetable matter, may be cut and used as turf 

Sirong swards usually accumulate along the *ides oj 
fences, and whtsre cattle much resort, whicj^^may be usel 
to advantage in composts. , # 

See Manures 'a* 

When the sward of mowing-ground binds too mu*cn\ it 
usually most advisable to break it up and ii!l the^ ground. 
If this be not done, scarifying and compost- manures are to- 
be resorted to. The binding of the swa'rd, in mowing or iti 
pasture-grounds, is principally the effect of close feeding. 
L^ a sufficiency of /og, or aftergrass,J)e lelt on such lands,' 
aSI they will not be apt to bind. s f ' 

Generally speaking, there is no method so easy, and 
cheap, of covering dry soils, which are poor or exhausted, 
with a fresh green swarid, as the use ot gypsum; and Jhis 
should always be done, before such grounds are broken up; 
as, in that case, double, or perhaps treme, the^^crop may be 
expected from them, that they will yield if broken up with 
a light, poor sward on them Let the gypsum be sown on 
such lands early in the Spring; and by the first of the fol- 
lowing July they will be covered with a fine sward of white- 
clover; and, when land is well covere||^^with ihis grass, it is 
in good condition, with the aid of good tillage, to bear a 
pldtitiful crop. "* 

SWARTH-RAKE. This is a rake about two yards long, 

,with iron teeth, and a bearer in the middle; to which a Man 

fixes himsdli with a belt, and, when he has gathered as 

much as his rake will hold, he raises it and begins again. 

Comfilete Fjdrmer. * 

For another kind 6f rake, dee Haymaking. ^ 

&W1NE. * The Cattle Society of Pennsylvania* recom- 
mend crossing the Guinea breed of Hogs with the best 
kinds of our common Swine, which, they say, forms a breed 
the most profitable of any. 

The Chinese breed are very good. The large longbodied 
Hogs, with long earr. leaning forward, are most profitable to • 
faten the second year. 

Particular pains shouldvbe taken to select and improve 
the breed oi Hogs, as some kinds are much more profiiable % 
\,QT raising than others. After a proper improvement of the 



:-> 



368 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

breed, the next point is to select the fipest for Breeding- 
sows, and for Boars. 

Tl>e marks ot a good Hog are, a moderate length, in 
proportion to the size of the body; the nose short, the cheek 
plump and full; nt ck thick and shors ; quarters full; car- 
case thick and lull; hair fine and thin; with a symmetry 
^ adapted, to the breed to which it belongs. Above all, it is 

f.senti.fl, that it be of a kindly disposition ^lo faten early, 
he longnosed.Hags should be avoided. 
^ The So>V will bring forth a stronger and better litter, if 
iept^iunn the Boar till she is a year old; and he should be 

' kept ml that age, before he is put to Sows. He should be 
kept In good condition for the purpose; and, as the Com- 
pilers of * The Comfilete Grazier* say, should not serve 
more than ten Sows in a year. Tiie Sows should also be 
Jtept in good condition, but not too fat ; as in thai case they 
^ will not produce an abundant litter pf:tpig8. As they MyJl 
v?sually pignwice a year, they should be put to the Bos^^t 
such times as will bring one litter in April, and another 
early in September. To cause theiti to go to the Boar, if 
they miss the right season, give them some parched oats in 
their wash, or the ^^^W end of a junet-bag. If well kept, 
however, they will seldom require any stimulous to coition 
at the proper limes. 

Those are reckoned the best breeders which have about 
ten or twelve paps. They should be kept clean and well 
littered ; but should not have too much Utter at the time of 
piging, lest they ove^ay their Pigs in it. At the end of a 
week or ten days, they should be let out of their sties into 
the yard, for three or four hours each day. Where s^ve- 
"al Sows are farrowing, about the same time, they must be 
kept in separate apartments in the sty, lest they devour the 
Pigs of each other. Youn^ Spws will sometimes eat their 
own offspring, which may be prev^ented by hashing the 
bctcks of the Pigs in an infusion of aloes; and, for this pur- 
pose, the Sows must be watched when bringing forth. It is 
said, that^upplying them with plenty of water, at this time, 
will prevent any mischief taking place of this kind. |p 

The sucking Pigs, intended for market, should be killed 
at the end of about three weeks. The finest ones should 
be saved. By this time the rest will be able to follow the 
Sows, when the males may be casirated, and at the end of 
another v/eek the females may be spayed. This latter ope- 

• ration will greatly promote the growth and fatening of ihe 
females. The castration and spaying may as well, however, 
be detered till the age of six weeks. 

A Where the Pigs are to be weaned, Mr. Young" says, it 
should be at the age of two mon'!>s; and luty should be 
kept Jn a sty by themselves, and suffered to run into a yard. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 369 

They should be kept clean, and well littered, and should 
havtr plenty of food, which may be boiled potatpes, or car- 
rots, for a fortnight; when raw ones will prove good food. 
They should also be baited every day for a month with oatS| 
and after this mayiiave a thin drink of pea or buckwheat 
meal (Indian meal will no doubt answer as well) boiled in 
water, unless there be a dairy ; in which case, a mess 
milk or whey jmay be subsiitu-ed. Too much shquld no 
however, be given them at once, as Mr. Deane says it i^r 
known sometimes so to iriflate them with wind^as tq kill 
them. Mr. Young says, their being kept very cleali^ly, so 
as to have fine clean coats, is as essential to their growth as 
good feeding, until they are turned out with the larger 
Hogs into the clover field, which, after the age of three 
months, will keep them very well during the rest of the 
growing season. : "' 

has been unifor.tSy remarked, that though^tfcese anU 
are naturally filthy, if left to themselves; yet, the 
cleaner they are kt pt. Ui^ better they will grow and faten. 

Boiled or steamed CTO^er hay will serve to keep Hogs 
during Winter; but, perhaps, the addition of some potatoes 
or/carrots, boiled with the hay, would ;6f^very proper The 
clover should be cut a li:ilt sooner tfiii^ usual, and sl\ould 
be well cured, and have abbutfa peck of salt to each ton, 
when laid dt>wn in the mow. 

For boiling, in this case, as well as for boiling roots, and 
for other purposes, see Steamboiler j^ , 

The Sows may be allowed to breed nil tiiey are six years 
old, and the Boar until he is five. After this, the former is 
to be spayed and put up to faten, and the lauer is to be 
castrated, as being no longer fit for use. His flesh will 
make good bacon, when fated. 

In p^efereuce to feeding Swme on clover in the fields 
during "Sumi^'fer, Mr. Young directs soiling themin a yard 
for the purpose; and in this case he 'makes use pf lucerne, 
cichory, clover, tares, ^nd other green food, cut and carried 
in Im- feeding them. The water crowfoot (rununculus 
aqzaff^lisj is also highly recommended for tnis purpose. 
This method, however, though it may saveisome ground in 
pasture, anB may afford the means of making considerable 
manure, does not seem so apparently beneficial, as the 
practice of soiling some other caitl^. Mention is made, by 
Mr. Young, oi his having fed sixty four a Hogs, great and 
small, on two acres of clover alone, during one season, and 
that they all grew very well. The pasture in which they 
are kept should have a supply of ^water. Before Ihfy are 
turned into the pasture, and while they are young, let th^ 
top of the gristle of the nose be pared off with a sharp 
" 47 '^ 



Ah 



270 FARMER'9 ASSISTANT. 

knife, which will ever afterwards prevent their rooting up 
the sward. - It answers the sanne purpose as ringing them. 

Perhaps the best method of keeping Swine, during Sum- 
mer, is to have two small enclosures ; ^he one to be kept 
for feeding them, while the other is under tillage for a 
fresh supply of clover, or other good grass, when that in 

e first has fdiled. And as they are fond of sweet apples, 

hich not only serve for Jood, but will even help to faten 
m, let the enclosures be planted with a few trees of 
these, of *the best yeurly bearers, stlected for the purpose; 
somelSeing early ripe and some later; in order that a con- 
stant supply may be fforded during the season. The trees 
should, however, not stand so closely as materially to injure 
the ground for culfevation. Peachtrees may also be advan- 
tageously used tor the same purpose, till the appletrees 
have suffi* iently grown. ''%-:■ % 

Boiled clover has been meniionf'd, ^as affording a ^M(^ 
food for Hugs during Winter. In Greatbritain, boiled W"- 
rots, potatoes, turnips. Sec. are mostly used for the purpose^ 
by those who go largely into the raising of Swine. 

Hogs tor fating ^puld be in a healthy state; and, to in- 
crease their appett^Jlet a dose or two of sulphur be given 
them in their food. / Change oL,food is also good to increase 
their appetite; but laxfUive food should be avoided, as they 
are seldom costive. When found so, a little rye will help 
them. Probably changes of Boiled roots, and of meal and 
water, at intervals, ^ould be found best. Mr. Young' says, 
the best method<Of ceding all kinds of grain, to Hogs, is to 
grind it to meal, and mix it with waier, in cisterns ipnade 
for the purpose, in the proportion of five bushels of meal 
to a hundred*: gallons of water; the mass to be well stired 
several times each day, until it has fermented and become 
iacid, when it will be ready lor use. In tMs wayr^two or 
three cisterns must be kept for fermenting W succession ; 
bur he says^ the profits will amply pay the expense. 

For the same reason, the^ grains of distileries, and the 
refuse of starch-'^tories are; excelent for fating S^ne. 
Mention is madi.OT one of the latter at Lambeth (dfeat- 
britain) affordin'g sufficient to faten ten thousand Hogs in a 
year. Peasoup is ^Iso accounted excelent for fating. Boiled 
Indian corn is also very good ; or this grain may be soaked 
so as to answer well ; though perhaps it is better ground 
into meal. Indian corn of a former year's growth is much 
the best. 

In recommendation of i?eas,^ together with a mixture of 
barky-meal, being used1|or fating, the Compilers of ' The 
Comfilet(^ Grazier* assert, that the pork fated with this grain 
will rather swell in boiling, and have an improved flavor? 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 371 

while that fated with beans will shrink much in boiling, will 
lose much of its iat, and be of mtcFior taste The cause 
of meat sometimes shrinking very mucfi, and losing much 
of its oils in cooking, seems not to be well understood; 
though the knowledge necessary for prcveniing it would be 
highly desirable. Gi^neraily speaking, it is believed, that 
the more fully any animal is fated, the less us meat will 
shrink and part with its oil in cookii»g. 

Mr. Peters s^ys that Hogs, while tdting, should constant^ 
ly have some dry roten wood kept in me p^n, which they*" 
will eat occasionally ; and that he finds it very beneficial to 
them, tor the purpose of keeping aicm in a proper *condi- 
tion tor fating. Ho also says ihat tood, when soured by a 
proper degree ot fermentation, is much the best tor iaimg, 
and that one galjpn of sour wash will ^<5 as far as two of the 
sweet, lor this pQrpose. He disapproves of soiluic; Hu^^s, • 
and bays the c^ver p^tore is much the best tor tncm. 
AVhaiever method ot tatenmg Swine may be adopted, it 
is essential that they be kt-pt warm ai«d clean^ by having 
plenty of litter, particularly when tne weather becomes 
colder, and by having the sly frequently clecined j.and, that 
they snould have as much solid tood and drink as they re- 
iBiiire. Tneir meals should also be TjS|^^'*^> '^^^ ^^ nearly 
equi distant in point of iiiiie ^s possible * 

In the ^rk last menuoned, it is observed, that where 
many Hags are put up together to taten, they will fall away 
at first, it ever so well led; which is atiiibuted to the noise 
and confusion produced among them,vby this new state of 
keeping J^ that, irv«uch cases, it is not unfrequent tor one of 
the family to become so much the object of hatred to the ^ 
rest, as eventually to be killed by them; and, that it is 
much the better way to have them in a number ot small 
companies, detached from each other, so that the noise 
and btistle^ll be less, and in order that they may mor'e 
unmoleste dry enjoy that repose which is most suitable to 
their drowsy faculties. For this purpose, the sty should 
have a number of distinct aipartments, separated by close 
pai|itions from each other, and where,,^he inmates of each 
caff come forward separately to the general feeding-trough, 
and retire separately again to rest. 

Where a Hog has surfeited itself h^ eating too much, 
give it half an ounce of fljur of sulphur in some wash, 
once or twice a day, for two or three days; by which time 
its appetite will be restored. Mr. Dcane advises, that posts 
be set up in the sty for them to rub against, as they are 
usually much inclined to rub th^^selves. 

The business of fating Hogs sftbuld be begun so early in j 
the Fall, as to be completed before the cold weather sets in; 
as ^ler this they will 'faten very slowly. Let it be com- 

■ -^ ^ 



Sr2 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

menced by the middle of September, and then the killing 
may commence about the middle of November. 

Swine are liable fo some diseases, which are here noticed, 
with the best remedies tor them. > ♦ 

Measles, Tills disorder is mostly in the throat, which is 
filled with small pustules, and sometimes these appear on 
the outside of the neck. The animal affected looks languid, 
>yith red eyes, and loses flesh. Cure. Give him small quan- 
tities of levigated crude antimony in his food. 
"* The inange^ like the scab in Sheep, is a cutaneous irrup- 
tion of, the skin, occasioned by want of cleanliness in the 
hogsiy- It is known by the violent rubing of th« animal, lill 
he tenrs the pustules, and thus produces scabs. The cure, 
as directed bv Dr JYoH'ord^ is first to wash the animal well 
with strong soapsuds; then anoint him with an ointment 
formed of an ounce of flour of suljihur, t\|0 drachms of 
fresh pulverized hellibore, three o^bces of hogslard, and 
hall an ounce of the water of kali. This is to be rubed -In 
at one time, and is sufficient tor a Hog weighing an hun- 
dred. If properly applied, no repetition will be necessary, 
if the Hog be afterwards kepi clean* Where he has a slight 
cough, he directs do&es of antimony, from half an ounce. to 
an ounce and a ha!f,rJHCCording to the ^Jze of the animal, to 
be fifttly pulverized and nuxed wilh his food, for ten days 
or a fortnight. But wuere, trom long neglect;^ the neck, 
ears, and other parts become ulcerated, they should be 
anointed every third or lourth day with an ointment made 
of iqual parts of t.»r and mutton-suet, melted together, till 
the cure is completed. "^ . ' 

The murrain^ or leprosy, in Swine, is known by the short- 
ness and heat ot the breath, hanging down of, the head, 
staggering, and secretions from the eyes. It is said to be 
caused by hot seasons, when the blood becom^yt;fl'4med. 

'Remedy. Boil a handful of nettles in a ga^illn of small- 
beer; add half a pound of flour of sulphur, a quarter of a 
pound of anniseeds, pulverized, three ounces ot Lquorice, 
and a quarter of a pound ot eliBcampane ; and give this n^ix- 
ture in milk, at six^oses. ^ 

The gargut is an inflammation of the udder, by being 
filled with coagulated milk. It cbieffy happens where Sows 
are too fat at iiUeiHng; and where they are thus alTected 
the Pigs will not suck. In slight cases, the udder may be 
bathed with camphorated wine; but the milk must be 
squeezed out by hand, if possible. If relief cannot thus be 
given, it is best to kill the animal. 

Dry cough^ and wastiii^l?f the flesh, is best remedied by 
4 a dry warm sty, with a regular supply of food that is calcu- 
lated to keep them cool, and to allay the irritation of the 
luna^.^ ^ 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 373 

Fever, or rising of the lights, seems to be caused by 
over-teeding ; and may be removed by doses of sulphur and 
oil. ^ 

The staggers. Swine tifflicted with this disorder suddenly 
turn round rapidly, and, it not assisted, will die in hall an 
hour. Re?nedy. On opening the mouth, a bare knob, in the 
roof of it, will be discovered j cut this away, and let the 
wound bleed ; make a powder of loam and salt, and rub the 
wound wiih if, and then give ih^ beast some urine, and he 
will prescnily recover. ''' 

This remedy, Mr. Be Gruchy, a Distiler, who fatens many 
Hog*^, says he found to be tffv^^ciual, if applied in time. 

Like many other employments, that of rearing and fating 
Swme will be found more profirable, the moie largely and 
spiritedly it is entered into; and in order to this the Farmer- 
must have his^^pgsty of an adequate construction ; his pas- 
tures adjoining; his sfeamboiler; his clover-hay; together 
wrai a due supply of roots and grain for feeding and fating. 
The business is niost advantageous when connected with a 
proportionate dairy; but,A.by following the plan above laid 
d^wn, may answer very well without. 

JSTote. This article Being essentially ^ same as the article 
^wiNE in a former edition of this Work, w^leem it proper now to 
add, that Mr. Cobbett has lately introduced a new breed of Hogs into 
this Country.' They are entirely black, short-nosed, and well pro- 
portioned. Mr. Cobbett declares them to be incomparably superior 
to the best breed known in Pennsylvania; and that such is the ease 
with which they may be completely fated, even at the age of a 
twelvemonth, that the Swedish turnip, or Rutabaga, when steam- 
boiled, is amply sufficient, of itself, for the purpose. 

This breed will, no doubt, be rapidly propagated and extended 
throughout Longisland, where Mr. Cobbett at present resides; whUe 
his liberality arid public spirit, displayed in the introduction of these 
animals, as well as his eliorts in forcing the advantages of the turnip- 
Guliure iinnn|a|»i attention of our Agriculturists, entitle him to the 
thanks of theT^ountry. --^ 

He very justly deprecates the breed of lean, illmade, longnosed 
Hogs, that are too commCnly found in this Country, but more parti- 
cularly in the Southern States. They are indeed the meanest of all 
the « swinish multitude,* and cost nearly as much to faten as they are 
worth when fated. 



T. 

- % 

TAURINO CLOTH. Mr. ^hotwell has manufactured 
cloth, to which he gives the above appellation, of fhe hair 
taken from hides at the taneries, mixed with one-third, j)ne- 



> 



t" 



374 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

> fourth, and one-fifth part of common wool. The Society 
« for the Promotion of useful Arts,* in this State, appointed 
a Committee to examine the specimens of tl\ese cloths; 
who reported that they found them well manufactured, of 
equal quality and texture, well died, and apparently firm 
and strong ; that these cloths are not only lighter than that 
made of wool alone, but that they have the property of re- 
sisting moisture, to a much greater degree, and are there- 
fore much better calculated for greatcoats; and that, from 
actual trial, an equally elegant and more durable carpeting 
• ipay be made from either of these mixtures, than that made 
entirely from wool. They also reported, 

« That, from documents accompanying the specimens, it is 
certain that a cloih equal, if not superior, in elegance and 
durability, is manufactured from hair alone ; and that it is a 
valuable substitute for felling, in the paper- n>anufacture.* 

TEA^S. Our teams are of three kinds ; teams of Hor- 
ses, of Oxen, and of Oxen and Horses together. In Spain 
and Italy, they h^ve teams of Cows, and sometimes of Cows 
and Bulls together. In the northern parts of Europe, the 
Reindeer has been subjected to the harness; and Mr. Linf- 
ingston is of opinioi^AJiiat the Eil^ and the Moose might also 
be brought under the like subjection, to advantage, in this 
Country. 

The advantages of Horses in teams are their siaperiot' 
docility and quickness of motion ; and their disadvantages 
are their greater expense in raising and keeping, and their 
. being of no value after their time of seryjce is over. On 
the contrary, the advantages of Oxen are their cheapness 
i». raising and keeping, and their value for beef, after their 
proper time of service has expired ; and their disadvantages 
are their slowness of motion, and their greatergUntractable- 
ness. Probably they might be rendered morlBjIfac table, if 
some effectu&l method were devised for driving them with 
lines : In that case, the extra expense of a Hand to drive 
them in ploughing would be saved, and the ploughing bet- 
ter performed. 

Say that a good span of Farming-horses are worth, at 
four years old, one hundred dollars: At fourteen years 
from that time they are worth little or nothing ; of course, 
another sum of one hundred dollars must, at the expiration 
of that time, be expended in the purchase of a new span. 
This sum, to be paid at the end of fourteen years, is about 
equal to fifty dollars paid down. In order, therefore, to 
keep good the span, a canijj^ of one hundred and fifty dol- 
4 lars is necessary; which wrcqual to an expenditure of ten 
dollars^nd fifty cents a year. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 375 

A yoke of Oxen, at four yearfe olcl, are worth, say, sixty 
dollars ; md allowing them no; to dept eciute in value, till 
turned off for fating, they require an expenditure of four 
dollars and twenty cents a year, as the interest of the capital 
laid out for them. 

Say that the Horses will cost fifteen dollars a year more 
than the Oxen to keep them, and provide harness for them; 
say also, that they do an hundred day's work in a year, 
and that the Oxen, working a third slower, require one 
hundred and thirty three days to p«irform the same labor: 
Then, if one Hand only is. employed with the Oxen, his 
wages and board, during the exfra thirty-three days, at fihy 
cents per day, would still leave a balance in favor of the 
Oxen of four doILtrs and eighty cents for the year's work; 
but if they shouj|fl require a Boy to drive, wh*ile another* 
Hand holds tte "p^ouglb ^^en the balance would be very 
considerably irflavor of the Horses. 

On the whole, it is believed, that Oxen may be found the 
most profitable team in some situations, particularly in new 
countries, and in rough lands; and in other situations again, 
iuch as in smooth lands, a^d where the best cultivation is 
required, probably, H^Pscii ought, for most uses, to have 
the preference. ^ 

Lord Kaims^ however, expresses an opinion very d iff rent 
from this. He says that Oxen are preferable for husbandry, 
in many respects. They are cheaper than Horses, as it re- 
gards their food, the method of keeping them, the superior- 
ity of their dung, their being subject to fewer diseases, and 
their suffering no deterioration by age. He says, that a 
couple of Oxen in a plough require not a Driver more than 
a couple of Horses; that the Dutch, ^t the Cape of Good- 
hope, plough with Oxen without a Driver, and exercise 
them early^ a quick pace, so as to equal Horses both in 
the plougWJPd in the wagon; that the People of Malabar 
use no other animal for the plough, nor for burdens; and 
that, about Pondicherry, no beasts of burden are to be seen 
but Oxen. He further justly remarks, that, if Oxen were 
more generally used, the articles of beef, candles, and 
leather," three essential necessaries of life, would become 
much cheaper. 

The Compilers of < The Complete Grazier* also say, that 
Messrs. Culley^ of Northumberland, Greatbritain, employ 
one hundred and fifty Oxen in the draft; that they are used 
singly in carts, and two in a plough, with cords or lines, 
without a Driver; but that they do not perform their work 
with the same dispatch, as Hor^^s. They further observe, 
that, 'in the north of England, it is not an unfrequent oc- 
curence to see a light Ox saddled, and briskly troting along 
t*ie road, obedient to his Rider's voice;' and that * Sussex 



376 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

Oxen have beaten Horses at the plough, in the deepest clay.* 
They recommend the Hertfordshire and Devonshire Oxen, 
as being the most speedy. 

See the description of the Devonshire breed of Oxen, 
under Neat-cattle 

The slowness of Oxen is partly natural and partly acquir- 
ed by overloading them. This, therefore, should be avoided. 
When their work is easy, they may be quickened without 
hurting them, and their contracting a habit of moving so 
slowly, as some do, may be thus prevented. They always 
become slower as they grow older, and for that reason they 
never should be kept longer than such age as they will 
still make the best beef, which is probably about the age 
of seven or eigh» years. 

In a tearti, of part Oxen and part Horses, either the gait 
of the Oxen must become quickened, or that^pt the Horses 
made blower; but, perhaps, a little of eacF" would be. the 
consequence, and in this way the Oxen would be the better, 
though probably at the expense of injuring 1:hc Horses for 
almost every kind of work, when worked by themselves. 

Mr. Livingston makes mention of a contrivance he had 
seen in Italy, that was attached^ito the noses of the Oxen, 
which was principa))^ used for governing them ; and by 
means of it he thinks he had seen them drove with lines. 
« It consists (says he) of two fl it pieces of iron that turned 
at the lower ends, and formed a forceps ; these bars shut 
over, and, wheru closed, the ends genilj^ pressed upon the 
cartilage of the nose of the Ox. They were kept close by 
being tightly bound at the top, and straped a§;4inst the fore- 
head of the Oxen.' 

4 If we may argue the utility of a practice from its extent 
(says Mr Livingston) we must prefer drawing by .the horns 
to any other mode; nine tenths of Europe ma^their cattle 
draw in this way, and,' from what I have seen||p their per- 
formance, I am persuaded that it is to be prefr-red to the 
yoke. A Bull's strength appears to be placed in his n6ck, 
and in drawing in this way the whole of it is exerted ; his 
motion is not" impeded, or his skin chafed as it is by the 
yokf.' 

* In the mountains of Savoy (says Mr. Livingston) I saw 
many cattle, chiefly Cows, drawing by the horns, not in 
carts but in wagons. How far the working of Cows is ad- 
vantageous, deserves consideration. ^ It is observable, how- 
ever,'that our Cows are in general much smaller than those 
usually worked in Europe.' 

*■ Yokes (he observes) are used |^n some parts of Italy, 

^ but they differ from ours. ^Instead of bows, there are lour 

flat pieces of wood, which hang from each side of the yoke, 

and are about ten inches long, and hollowed so as to fii the 



I?ARMER'3 ASSISTANT. 37f 

^Mes of the neck: They are so thick as to admit a rope or 
chairj to pass ti.rouj^h them, by which they are fixed to the 
yoke, and each pair of them are united by a chain, or rope, 
under \ht Oxen's neck You will see that the drufi is in 
this case by \he top ot the shoulders only, and I btlieve it 
is to be prefered to our bows, on that account, because the 
bow, by pressing the shoulder-blade, impedes the motion 
of ti e aninial.' 

For holding back, whether they draw by these yokes or 
by the horns, he says * the end ot the pole projects con- 
siderabiy beyond the heads ot the cattle, and turns up very 
much 5 lo this is fixed a leather strap that goes round the 
horns of the Oxen, ^ that they keep back the weight by 
their horns, and with much more ease than ours do by 
twisting their necks * 

In England, they are worked in harness, which, were it 
not more expensive, and more troublesome, ought to be 
prefered to the method practised here. 

We think it highly probable, that the great pressure of 
the bows of our yokes against the shoulders of the? Oxen, 
and the enormous weight ;^ey are often injudiciously ma|le 
to bear on their necks, when in^carts, are the principal 
causes of our Oxen moving slower the longer they are 
iised. 

In all teams, where two animals draw against each other, 
the weaker one should have the longer end of the ox-bow, 
or whiffletree, by which they draw, in order that when 
drawing they may pull evenly. 

If Oxen learn to crowd each other, use them to a shorter 
bow; it they draw apart, use them to a longer one. 

THA, OR TEA-TREE. This plant is mostly grown in 
the more mountainous districts of China) and is best adapt- 
ed to a light TOcky soil. There are two kinds of tea made 
from the plant ; the green, and the black. The latter ac- 
quires its dark color by exposure to the sun, in drying; and 
is also made from the coarser and more indifftrrent leaves. 

For raising the trees, the seeds are planted in March, by 
puting senen or eight into a hole 5 out of which number not 
more than one-half commonly vegetate. The young plants 
are after^vards transplanted in rows, at the distances of three 
or four feet each way. They yield crops of leaves the third 
year after planting, and require to be renewed every five or 
six years, as the leaves tl^en begin to grow too hard, to be 
any longer valuable. 

On the more tender branches grow small soft berries, of 

a green color, filled with yellow grains; and the other 

branches bear pods of a larger size, of different shapes ; 

some round, which contain but one pes, and others of some 

• ^ 48 



srs FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

j^lenpfth, which commonly have two or three. The plant, in 
some parts ot China, is not suffered to grow to a height ot 
more than six or seven feet; in other parts, to the height 
of ten or twelve. In the southern Provinces of that Country 
it is considerably used for making hedges. 

The leaves are gathered at the begining, the middle, and 
the end of Spring, and their color diffe.rs bt each time; the 
fiist being bright, the second livid, and the third deep- 
green. The qualhies of the leaves depend on the times of 
gathering J the first being the best, the second midling, 
and the last of the least value. Their qu .lilies, at each 
gathering, depend also on the parts of the tree whence the 
leaves are taken ; those of the higher parts, being the ten- 
derest, are the best oOhe crop; those ot the lowest, the 
hardest and worst ; ufra those of the middle, ot a medium 
between »he two extremes. 

Afier each gathering, the leaves are exposed to the steam 
of boiling water, and are then made to shrivel, or roll to- 
gether, by being placed on plates made of copper, of iron, 
or of bft*ked earth, with a fire underneath. The leaves of 
mfk meaner sorts are then dried^in the sun, which darkens 
their color, and these ai'# the bla^k teas. The better leaves 
are not exposed to the sun in drying, and these are the 
green teas ; and in the preparation of some of the finer 
sorts, particularly that called tchu tcha^ every leaf is rolled 
singly by hand, the finer preparation of which we call guu' 
powder tea. 

Mr. Osbeck, a Traveler in China, says that tea, in the 
course ot preparation, passes through many dirty hands; 
and that in packing it down in chests it is troden by the 
naked, and sometimes bleeding, feet of a Chinese Porter, in 
a state of perspiration. As the Chinese are proverbial for 
their nastiness, it were to be wished that our j'emales, who 
are so attached to drinking tea, could see fhe manner in 
which it is prepared; as this might probably tend very 
much to lessen their relish for ihis exhilirating, but ener- 
vating, beverage, that has added the hysterics to the cata- 
logue of their disorders, and that has probably contributed 
much towards making the Chinese a race of Covprds, from 
the Emperor f»own to the meanest Peasant. 

The tea-plant has been successfully raised in England, 
from seed brought from China, and might probably be raised 
here, with equal success, in all the Stales south of Penn- 
sylvania. It is doubiful, however, whether it could be cul- 
tivated here so as to be afford td as cheap as that imported 
from China; owing to the great disparity in the price of 
labor in the two Countries. There has been considerable 
difficulty in makirig 'he seeds of this plant gernnnaie, when 
brought from that Country. In the ^Emliorium of ArtsA:fc* 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 379 

it is stated, however, that the vegetative power of seeds 
may be long preserved, by being kept among raisins, in 
boxes. 

See also, Seeds, for other methods of making old seeds 
germinate. 

THORN (Crataegus,) There are many varieties of 
this irce in this Country, some of which may be found 
more valuable lor making hedges, than others. One gen- 
eral rule should, however, be observed in making a selec- 
tion, and that is, to take ot those which grow naiuraily in 
the Country where the hedge is to bf^ m^de. In more 
northerly climates, the rtd-truiied (Coccinta) is most com- 
mon, and perhaps as valuable as any, tor the purpose. In 
the Middle Siaies, the Washington thorn (Cordata) seems 
to have the prelerence. 

There has existed considerable difficulty in making the 
seeds ot American thorn vegetate. A succesbfal method, 
pursued by Mr Kirk^ ot Brundywint-, lor this purpose, is 
to wash the setds clean; put them in hot water to swell 
them, expose them at nig^ to be frozen in the water, apd 
in tne day 'haw them ii]^ie sui)^ and by repealing this 
operation, lour or five times, he tound them opea and fit 
for planting. 

They lire to be planted in beds, and covered to the depth 
of not more than two inches. After they have come up, 
they may be transplanted into other beds, and are to be 
kepi clear ot weeds until they are set ou', which should be 
when they are at the height of ab9Ut two feet. 

THRESHING This, when performed with flails, is but 
slow work. 1 iireshmg with Horses is considerably more 
exp;diiious. Some of the German F^mers of this county 
and its vicini^ thresh with a roller, whifih turns on a centre 
at one end, which is small and confined to the floor, at that 
end, by an iron pivot on which it turns, and the other end 
is large in proportion to the increase of the circle it makes. 
It is drawn by a Horse, and is usually about twelve leet 
lotjg. It^ sei lull of little square pieces of woodeff*teeth, 
leaning outwards, with the ends cut off* slanting, agreeably 
to the superfice of the roller. With this a Man and Horse 
will thresh out about twelve bushels of wheat in a day. 

In Virginia, where the greatest crops of wheat are raised, 
they generally thresh them out in the fi.::ds; and for this, 
some use threshing-machines, and some make circular 
floors of eighty teet diameter, or more; on this the wheat 
is set with the heads upwards, and then wagons and Horses 
are drove round on it till tha fl -or is threshed; then more 
is constantly thrown on, till a hundred bushels, or more, 



3aO FARMER^s ASSISTANT. 

are threshed out ; when ihey separate the wheat from the 
straw by forking it up; clean the wheat; and then proceed 
as before, till the business is completed. Threshing- 
machines are, however, the best ; and the expense of them 
is but a trifle for those who raise large crops of wheat and 
other grain. 

For a threshing machine, v,rhich is probably the best that 
has been yet invented, we reler the Readtr to Agricul- 
ture, in the American edition of the Edinburg Encyclofie' 
dioy published in ihe city of Newyotk, by M v^-i. Whiting 
$5* Watson. The invention is tlmt of Mr. Mrikle. A ma- 
chine of this description, on a large sci*Ie> and drove by 
Witter, separates wheat from the stalks and tcins or cleans 
it, at the same time, at the rate oJ sixty bushels an l»our. 

One, on a smaller scale, and which requires two Horses 
to work it, and three Hands to attend it, will thresh and 
clean sixty bushels oi wheat, or double that quantity of 
oats, in eight hours. The Writer of the article adds, that 
* rollers or smail millstones are added to many ol these ma- 
chine«<, for crushing or grinding grain for Horses, Swine, 
&^Q. K lives, for cuiing straw, and many oihcr useful ap- 
pendages, might be adfl^ed.' Tliis machine has also becB 
put into operation by wind 

See further, Wind-machinery. 

It sijould also be addtd, mat mis machine separates the 
grain from the straw much cleaner, than is usually done 
With the flail. 

TILLAGE. A great part of this Work relates to tillage^ 
or the culiuie of land; the Reader must therefore refer to 
the various articles which treat of tiiis subject in all its 
branches. Any unco.nnmon mode of culture, however, or 
any miscellaneous observations relating to the subject, will 
naturally form the substance ot this article. 

Under Soiling of Cattle is laid down a method of 
tilling a small piece ol land, wherever such may be found 
suitable for the purpose, which we have ventured to recom- 
mend. The mode ot culture there recommended is uncom- 
mon ;(pthe land is divided into narrow strips^ an<|fthese are 
to be ploughed but o.ie way. Further, theietore, to assist 
in convincing the most bigoted, that there is nothing ex- 
travagant in the plan of cultivating in narrow strips, and 
ploughing but one way; the mode of cultivating two fields, 
which is practised by the Inhabitants of Murket'toeighton^ 
in Greatbritain, as published in the < Rusticum Museum* 
shall be here noticed. 

These People have five fields, in common, for culture ; 
three of a clayey soil, and two which are more sandy. The 
iutter supply them witte^rye, hay, and pasture for^ their 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 381 

Sheep, &c. ; and are tilled in the following^ manner: The 
fields are raised in ridges, which are four mowing-swaths 
wide ; the middle or higher part of each rid^e, ot ihe wioth 
ot twa swaths, is cuUivatcd tor rye, and ihe remainder of 
each, or the moisier parts, alternately tor nmowicig and pas- 
ture. When the rye is growing ihe gr-^ss-sinps ure mow- 
ed ; and the next season, wutu rye^sirips are fallowed lor 
another crop ot that grain, the grass-strips afford pasture 
for their Sheep, Sec. ; the dung and stale of ihe Hut k serves 
as a light manuring for the ground every tal!<jw:<ig year; 
and this serves constantly to produce strips of good rye, and 
mowing- ground the next year. It would seem, by tiie de- 
scription given ot these grounds, that the soil is somewhat 
wetish though sandy. Here, then, is ground tilied to ad- 
vantage, as is said, in very narrow strips, and wiiliou any 
cross-ploughing. It is however believed, that such fi. Ids 
might be cultivated to much more advantage, on the soiimg- 
plan, heretofore recommended, or something similctr. 

In tilling lands, it is essential that it be done in the right 
seasonj that it be done effectually; and, in order to ditb, it 
is ot the first importance to have the implements of tillage 
well constructed, and kept in good order. 

Again, lands should always b^ applied to that tillage for 
which they are best adapted; or, in other words, in which 
they will constantly yield the greatest clear firofic If, there- 
fore, the Farmer has lands which are only filed for grass, 
let him not work against wind and tide in trying to raise 
grain on them. If he has broken hills and declivities, they 
will generally but poorly repay the unpleasant labor of cul- 
tivating them with the plough and the hoe : Rather lei such 
be kept for Sheep-walks, for orchards, for raising timber or 
perhaps for the culture oi the vine, as they may be found 
best adapted. If his lands are rocky and stony, to plough 
and hoe them is a difficult uneasy i^^ployment; and never 
can be productive of much profit, till the impediments to 
the plough and the hoe are removed. If they are too light 
and sandy, they may nevertheless be made to yield good 
crops of taprooied plants, such as turnips, carrots, and clover; 
or of sjuch as ripen early, as rye, for instance ; or thai bear 
drougbt well, as burner. Si ntfoin, lucerne; or ot sach trees 
as flourish in sandy soils, as the locust, Lombardy poplar, 
olive, &c. Jf lands be boggy, when well drained, they will 
be foand very piofitable tor hemp, which they will bear 
yearly, with the aid ot small yearly additions of manure; 
but, it they be moderately level, smooth, and of a good me- 
dium soil ; that is, such as is equally adapted for grain and 
for grasses ; there let the Farmer pursue the culture of a 
rotation of crops, in such manner as he finds will aflTora 
him the greatest clear profit ij^jnd in doing this, it is believ 



332 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

ed, that he cannot adopt a better plan than that recommend- 
ed unrler Soiling kc. or something similar. 

The expense ot any kind of tillage never should be re- 
garded, where clear profiis proportionately great may be 
salely calculated on, as a geperal result. Thus, it it cost 
fifty dollars to till and gather an acre of carrots, and that 
acre, upon a yearly average, will give five hundred bush- 
els, the crop, at eighteen cents a bushel, which is certainly 
not too high, gives thirty five dollars per acre, as the clear 
profi', after taking out five dollars an acre lor the use of the 
land; a profit much greater than can be commonly realised 
by raising any kind of grain. Neither should the expense 
of tillage be regarded where the clear profits will be great, 
though not to be realized in some years, if it may be calcu- 
lated that such profiis may certainly be expected. 

TIMBER The right time for felling trees for timber is 
in December and January, when the sap is down, as in this 
case it is less liable to be eaten with worms, and will last 
much longer. 

By experiments of M. Buffon^ it is found that trees which 
are striped of their bark in May or June, while standing, 
and then cut down the next Winter for limber, jire found 
to make the most solid, jeavy, and strong timber, and that 
even the sap is then good. The bark of oak, and some 
other trees, may, at that time, be striped off lo advantage 
for the use of laning. 

Soaking timber in salt-water is very good to increase Its 
strength and durability. 

In order to preserve timber from cracking, while season- 
ing, let it be blocked out for the purposes wanted, and 
laid in a hay-mow when the hay is caned in. When the 
hay is dealt out the next Winter, the pieces may be taken 
out well seasoned, and%ree from cracks. This is an excel- 
€nt plan for seasoning all kinds of limber for carri^ert^s. Sec. 
When this is to be done, if the trees be felled in Winter, 
let them lie in logs until haytime arrives. 

The right time for cuting down trees for timber is, when 
they are in their prime; as the wood will then have |rrived 
to its greatest perfection, for hardness and durability. 

In addition to the foregoing, we are assured, from an ex- 
perienced Builder of some of the fi.strate bridges in the 
northern part of this Country, that such timber as is to be 
exposed to the water, or to frequent wetness, should be 
felled during the increase of the moon ; and that such, as is 
intended to be kept dry, should be felled during the decrease 
of that planet. We find it also ascertained, by satisfactory 
experiments, as published in ' the Memoirs of the Philadel- 
phia Society for the Promoti^of Aj^riculiure,* that limber, 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 383 

used for posts, will last considerably longer, by seting the 
end in the ground which was uppermost as it grew. 

TIMOTHY-GRASS (Phleum Pratensis.J This is a 
coarse grass, bui agreeable to all sorts of caiJe, and suita- 
ble to low moist grounds. It is a native of America. The 
name of Timothy was givt n it in the Sou h* rn States, by its 
having ieen carried from Virginia to Norih-carolma by one 
Timothy Hanso It is also called bulbous catstail grass. 
See Grasses. 

TOBACCO (Micotiana) This plant has its name from 
Tobago, one ot the Carrib«-e islands. Ii was first nuroduc- 
ed into England, and thence into Europe, by the famous 
Sir Walter Raleigh 

For raising the young plants, burn a piece of ground 
early in the Spring, rake it well, and sow the seeds. Wht^n 
the plants have acquired leaves of the size of a shilir-ig 
piece, transplant theme They require a dry, litrht soil, aad 
a rich one, wtll mellowed with ploughings. Duig ot the 
hotest kinds are suitable to it, though cowdung m sandy 
soils will do well for raising it. TranspLini the youtig 
plants when the ground is wet, as in the case of cabbage- 
plants, and afterwards hoe them and clean them of weeds 
as you do thebe, and destroy the large green worms which 
feed on them. The plants are to be set about three and a 
half feet apart. 

Cut off the tops of the plants at the height of about three 
feet, more or less, as they may be more or less thrifty, ex- 
cept those designed for bearing seed, and let these be the 
largest. The cuting should be done so early as to let the 
upper leaves acquire a size equal to the lower ones, and 
let them all be cut off at the same time, whatever the size, 
in order that good thick leaves may 'be afforded. Let the 
suckers which shoot out from the foot' of the stalks be also 
broken or pinched off, as they appear. 

The ripeness of tobacco is known by small dusky spots 
appearing on the leaves, and by their feeling thicker than 
usual. ^Then cut them down at the roots, on the jnorning 
ot a sunny day, and let them lie singly to wither; but be 
careful not to let them get sunburnt. When withered, lay 
them in close heaps, under cover, to sweat, for abou^ torty- 
eight hours or more. After this, hang them up under cover 
to dry. The way to do this is by runing two stalks on the 
sharp ends of a stick, and thus suspending them across a 
pole, at proper distances from each other. As the plants be- 
come dry and brown, place them nearer together, when the ^ 
air is damp, so that the leaves do not crumble. When they 
have hung till all the greenivj|$s has left the leaves, and 



3S4 FARMER*s ASSISTANT. 

Vrben they ^fe a little clamp, strip them off, pack them in 
casks, well pressed down, and keep them in a dry place* 
They will be better for use after the first year. 

Mv. Peters says, that gypsum is an excelent manure for 
th1% plant. 

TR\NSPL ANTING. In performing this operation, on 
all plants of wood texture, the essential point is to set the 
roots in the ground in a situation similar to that in which 
they were placed, before they were taken out; not only the 
same dep*h, but) as Mr. Forsyth says, with the same side to 
the souih which was the south side before: But as they 
cannot be goi out of the ground, nor set again into it, with 
their full length of roots, these must be cut off to a length 
propor'ionate to their sizs. Where they are very small, let 
them be cut at the lenprth of six or eight inches, and where 
they are pretty large, double that length, or more : Let 
tbera be carefully taken up, without breaking the roots, 
cuung off those that get broken, and cuting them all off at 
their proper length ; and let the hole, into which they are 
to be set, be sufficiently large to receive the roots without 
cramping them: Then shake in the earth gently about 
them, so as that each one shall retain its proper position As 
it is difficult to give the fibrous roots their proper place, it 
is generally best to cut most of these off In'fruit*trees, all 
the downright roots should also be cut off. 

If the roots have been some time out of ground, it is 
advisable to soak them in water for eight or ten hours be- 
fore they are set in. In a cold or stiff soil, they should be 
set shallower than in a warm mellow one. After they are 
properly beded in the ground, a stake should be drove in 
near to each one, leaning towards* them, and to these they 
should each be tied, to keep them steady | and some mulch 
should be laid round the roots of each. 

In transplanting the smaller kinds of plants, a wet time is 
to be chosen, and the evening is better than any other time. 
As much of the earth should be left round the roots, as 
possible, in taking them out of the ground ; and if they are 
raised w,ith a little instrument called a Gardener's, trowel, 
by which a bunch of earth can be raised with them, they 
will be the better for it. The holes where they are set 
should be well watered, and the water should previously be 
well warmed by the sun. 

F r the times of transplanting different plants, and the 
disia «ces they are to be set apart, see, the different articles 
which are the subjects of this operation. 

TRENCH-' LOUGHING Mr. Peters^ of Pennsylvania, 
has trench-ploug'aed as mu(^s filiy acres of hisjands, which 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 385 

had become exhausted with croping, and poisoned with 
weeds, and has always found the operation very beneficial; 
not only in deriving greater products, from the new layer 
of earth thus laid uppermost, but in its being free fr^ 
weeds, and their seeds, which infested the old cultivated 
stratum. In on^ instance, he even raised a good crop of 
hemp on a trench-ploughed soil, and wheat at the rate of 
more than tony bushels to the acre. Some manure of lime 
and barn dung was, however, first applied to the new soil. 

After about twelve years, he has again trench-ploughed 
and turned up the old soil, which he found renovated, and 
free from the weeds which before infested it. His lands 
are of the loamy description, which is one of the best kinds 
for this operation. 

The examples of this very intelligent Gentleman, who 
stands at the head of the Agriculturists of that Slate, are 
surely worthy of imitation It is believed that almost all 
the old exhausted lands of this Country would, in general, 
be much altered for the better by trench-ploughing. 

It may be a matter of some difficulty to give accurate di- 
rections, as to the kinds of soil where trench-ploughing may 
be pursued to advantage. In some parts of the earth, the 
stratum below |hat which has been reached by the plough 
is at first very^sterile, and difficult to be rendered fruitful 
without the aid- of much manures, and long exposure to 
the sun and frost. If it be a light red sand, or coarse 
gravel, neither sun nor frost will essentially help it. If it 
be what is commonly called a hardfian^ or something simi- 
lar, it may be found very cold, sour, and unfruitful. 

Generally speaking, however, all the better kinds of the 
loamy lands, whether they be a mere mellow loam, or mix- 
ed with suitable proportions of sand, gravel, vegetable, or 
calcareous earth, and all deep strorig clays, deep fertile 
sandy soils, or intervales, will be found more or less assist- 
ed by trench-ploughing, when the upper layer has become 
exhausted by severe croping; or, in some instances, even 
when that layer has become contaminated with some of the 
worst kinds of weeds. 

See further, 'Freezing. 

Anoiher use of trench-ploughing is, to stir up the earth 
deeper than can well be performed with a single furrow; 
as, in some particular kinds of culture, this may be found 
very beneficial. .''^- X:, *' 

It is performed by first runing a furrow, with one plough, 
the usual depth ; then another follows, in the same furrow, 
and throws up the fresh earth over the old, sufficiently deep 
to bury that below the common depth of ploughing; then 
the next light furrow, with the first plough, throws the old 
earth into the bottom of the d^p furrow, and this agai?^ 

49 



GTSS FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

follows, witli the second plough, and throws the new layer 
on the top of the old, and thus the work proceeds. The 
Fall is the proper time tor performing the operation. 

TUMORS. Mr. Bartlet directs, that when these appear 
on the pill withers, under the jaws, or in the groins of 
Horses, they should be forwatded by ripening poultices of 
oatmeal boiled soft in milk, mixed with oil and lard, and 
applied twice a dav, till the matter is perceived to grow soft 
and move under the fingers ; and then it should be let out 
by a sufficiently large opening with the lancet Let the 
opening be full as far as the matter extends. After cleans- 
ing the sore, applv pledgirs of tow, spread with a salve, or 
ointment, made of Vtnice turpentine, beeswax, oil of ofives» 
and yellow rosin ; and let these be administered twice a day, 
if the discharge is great, till a proper digestion ttikes place, 
when it should be changed for pledgirs spread with the red 
preciphate ointment, applied in the same manner. 

Should the sore not digest, but run a thin water, foment 
it as often as you dress it, and apply over the dressing a 
strong beer-poultice, and continue this titll the matter grows 
thick and the sore florid Should any proud-flesh get into 
the sore, wash it as often as you dress it wijLh a solution of 
6lue- vitriol in water, or spinkle it with t|urnt-allum and 
precipitate. If these should not prove sufficiently powerful, 
apply caustics, by washing it with a solution of half an 
ounce of corrosive sublimate in a pint of water. Where 
the sore can be tightly compressed with a bandage, how- 
ever, these funguses may be generally prevented. • 

Tumors, caused by bruises, should, if necessary, be bath- 
ed with hot vinegar or verjuice ; and then a flannel cloth 
should be wr; ped round thepart, if it can be done. If this 
does not abat the swellmg, especially if it be in either of 
the legs, poultice it twice a day, after bathing it with wine- 
lees, or beer-grounds and oatmeal, or with vinegar, oil, and 
oatmeal, till the swelling abates; when, in order to disperse 
it entirely, let it be bathed twice a day with a mixture of 
two ounces of crude sal ammoniac in a quart of chamber- 
lie, having rags d^ped in this and laid on.i^ 

Where the^ exT^vasated blood is not dispersed by these 
means, let an opening be made in the skin, and let the 
blood out, and then heai the wound. 

TURNIPS. T' ere are nvo species of these; the com- 
mon turnip, or brassica rapa >[ which there are varieties; 
and the cabbage tun !p, or braasicd. caulorafia, which is also- 
called the Swedish turnip, or rutabaga. They are each 
generally cons*d» r- d in Greatb."it:<irt, and elsewhere, as 
roots of the first imporiarite, in point of profit, tor field- 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 387 

culture, for the purpose of feeding and fating cattle. They 
are not so nouiishing, nor so good, for teednig Milch-cows, 
as some other roots j but their abundant yield, and me ease 
with which they are cultivated, on ught soils would seem lo 
entitle them to a preterence lor cultivation in most cases. 

Sandy and sandy loam soils, where they are sufficiently 
manured,. ^re considered as best adapted to their growth; 
but ilicy may be successluliy cultivated in any rich, dry, 
mellow soil. Clays are unsuitable for them. The easterly 
parts ot Virginia and Northcaiolma off<.;r many millions of 
acres of soil, admirably calculated tor their culture ; and 
perhaps the climate jthere will be found best adapted tor 
them. 

The common white turnips require to be fed out before 
thvy grow spongey ; but, as ru.a baga are as good for 
Sppng-teed^as at any other time, ihey are well adapied tor 
a supply, after the stock of those first-meniioned are ex- 
hausted. 

We perceive, by a publication of Mr. Cobbett^ that, dur- 
ing tne last season, he raised sik hundred and tony bushels 
ot ruia-baga on an acre ot ground, on L )Hgisland, in ^ soil 
much exn^justed, with the aid ot but very iuile manure; 
and that he confidently expects to be able to raise eight 
hundred bushels to the acre, the ensuing season. Some of 
these turnip^ he says, weighed ten pounds, and many of 
them seven and eight. 

The largest growths of them are always the most solid, 
and oest tor culinary or other purposes. They may be kept 
sound and tree from that sponginess which soon ulftxts the 
common white sorts, and for this reason are excelent for 
taking to sea on long voyages. The nutriment they afford 
is.about the' same as that ot the others, wnile fresh; and 
while either kind remain in this state they are sufficient for 
the purpose of fating Neat-cattle and Sheep; and, if sieam- 
bollcd, Mr. Cobbett says, they will faten Swine * of a good 
sort.* It IS believed that food of every kind, whether for 
Man or beast, is most nourishing when sufficiently boiled. 
See Steamboiler. 
The culture Wfc; both sorts of turnips is the same. 

What little has been done in this Couniry,^in raising tur- 
nips, has been to sow the seeds in the broadcast way, and 
mostly on new cleared lands; but often on old ground which 
had been folded ; in which ways tolerable crops are ofteau 
raised, with but little expense. The crops, in this way or 
management, may be greatly augmented in«product, by go- 
ing over the ground, once at least, with the hoe, for the 
purpose of extirpating the weeds, and thining the plants, so 
as to stand from six to eight inches apart. If the weeds 



388 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

rise again, as they commonly will in old ground, the hoe 
should be applied the second linne. 

We shall now proceed to de!»cribe the manner of raising 
these roots in drills, which is the proper method, being ihat 
in which the greatest crops may be raised with the least 
expense. 

The ground is first to be made fine with the plough; and 
the richer u"is the better; though they may be successtully 
grown, with the aid ot manures, on suitable soils of mode- 
rate iertiliy. Furrows are then to be run at about the dis- 
tance ot twenty seven inches trom the ctntre of each ; and 
this is best done with a kind of horse-4ioe, or scraper, that 
throws the earth off on both sides, though a common one- 
horse-plough will answer, by beina: run back in the same 
furrow, as described under Mangle wurtzel. In the 
bottoms of these furrows barn dui g, well rotcd for the 
purpose, or compost, suitable to the soil, is to be laid evenly 
along, at the rate of about fitteen horse-cartloads to the 
acre. A turrow, with a small onehorse plough, is then to 
be run on each side ot the layers of dung, so as to cover 
them over, but not too deeply. 

By this operation, ridges are tiirown up, which are to be 
the beds for the seed. Over these ridges ^ s^mall roller is 
drawn by one He rse, and to this a small dnll machine is 
attached, by a rope or ch dn, so as to tollow. behind, one 
wheel of V.e drill runing on each side of the ridge,-' and 
from this machine the sec;d is droptd, and covered, all at 
one operation. A handle, extending behind the machine, 
is held by the Diiver, for the purpose ot directing it, so as 
that the seeds are droped in their proper places, over the 
dung below, into which the roots soon extend, and cause 
the plants to grow with luxuriance. 

In due season, they are to be ihined, so as '•td stand six_, 
eight, or ten inches apart, according to the size they may 
be expected to grow ; which must depend on the dung be- 
low, aided by the natural strength ot the soil. At the same 
time, the intervals between the rows are to be ploughed 
with the scraper, and the hoe applied, together with hand- 
weeding, tor the purpose of cleaning the'^ground. 

In about ten ^ays alter this, the second operation of clean- 
ing the ground is to be commenced, by turning the furrows, 
with the small onehorse-plough, from the rows, which 

rows the ground into ridges between them ; and then 

ith the scraper, to split these ridges, which throws the 
ground back tO|jhe rows again; and this is to be followed 
with hoeing, and hand-weeding, as before. 

The scraper has a share*iwith a wing on each side, and 
rounded at the point, similar to the round-pointed shpyel, 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 



389 



and should be nearly the size of one of these. The whole 
plough, with the share, is shaped thus : 




m 



A The beam of the filough. 
B The handles. 
C The chip, 
D The share. 

E ji brace from the chifi to the beam, 
F F The fshaftsi to turn on a lyivot at the end of the 
beam. 

The depth of the furrow made by this kind of plough 
is regulated by the Driver. By pressing down on the han- 
dles the share runs deeper, and by raising them it runs 
shallower. The share should scrape out a furrow about 
ten inches wide^ I^n hoeing this crop, the essential point 
is to eradicate the weeds : No earth need be drawn round 
the plants. \ 

Perhaps a very small harrow might answer, as well as 
any other implen;ient, for cleaning the ground between the 
rows, for the fust time. It should be about eighteen inches 
wide, with the teeth set well slanting forward; and it should 
have a handle, rising up in a slanting direction behind, tor 
the Driver to hold, for the purpose of keeping it at equal 
distances from the rows of the growing plants on each side. 

This harrow may be made so iight as to be drawn by 
hand, on the tops of the ridges, in place of the roller, for 
smoothing their surfaces, so as to fit them for the operation 
of drilling in the seed ; and when the harrow is to be used 
between the rows it may have a weight put on it, to make 
the teeth sink sufficiently deep. In such cases, the hand- 
drill is to be usjsd, in place of the one drawn behind the 
roller. 

Ruta baga should be sown about three weeks earlier than 
turnips of the common kind. ^ About the twentieth of May 
is probably a propec time for sowing the former, in the 
more northerly parts of this Country ; but later, larger 
south, where the Summers are longer. It turnips of any 
kind are sown quite early, they are liable to run up to seed 
in the Fall. Some should b^, sown early, however, for af- 
i^rding a more early supply for fating cattle. 



39« FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

We have seen a Publication recommending common s^lt, 
as an exceknt manure tor turnips. It tiiis be touad correct, 
the beaer way would probably be to mix the salt in the 
heap ot compost, or dung, prepared tor the purpose of ma- 
nuring the crop, as before directed. It would be well also 
to try the effect of gypsum on this crop, by strewing a lit- 
tle along the rows atier drilling in the seed. 

We should also advise that trial be made of soaking the 
•*seed, b tore sowing, in a solution of saltpetre, with lie of 
wood.'Ashes, and old urine, and drying it with gypsum ; as 
something seems neccessary to assist the grow'tfi ot the 
young plints, until such time as their roots extend into the 
manure btlow. 

Id gathering this crop, different modes are practised. 
The Farmers of Norfolk, in England, where the culiure of 
turnips is very extensively pur.sueid, raise the roots wiih an 
iron instrument fixed in a handle, and on the other side it 
has cross edges, which are struck into the root, and cut it 
into four pieces, which fits ii for feeding raw to the cattle. 
They are then carted into the siubble>fii Id and thrown out 
for feeding, and at each time a diffiJieut part of the field is 
taken tor the purpose, in order that every part may be ben- 
efi ed by the manure left by the cattle. Alter the allowance 
is eaten, which should be no more th^n they can eat, at 
once, some hay is given them to correct the superabundant 
moisture of the turnips. 

Others pull up the roots by hand, first twisting them half 
round, in order to break off the fiorous roots, and rub off 
the earth adhering to them; and others again pull up one in 
each hand, and then knock them togctaer, to free them 
from earthy matter, before they are cut in pieces. It is also 
directed, by some, that the taproot be cut off, before they 
are fed out, as this, is injurious to cattle^ py causing a re- 
dundency of bile. 

Those which are stored for Winter-use, for cattle, in 
Greatbritain, have the tops as well as the taproots taken off; 
bui, if either be cut too close, the turnip will be apt to rot. 
The tops ar..i taken off to prevent vegetation ; for this less- 
ens the nutrimental quiiluies ot the roots. 

Rutu-baga mav. be left in the ground JFor the Spring- 
supply of tood, after the other sort is no longer valuable 
for tl»at purpose. Some Farmers, in the lower and warmer 
dUtricts ot that Country, leave the Winier-supply in the 
grdlBnd, and take them up as they are wanted; but this, 
when the ground is frozen, is attended with much trouble 
in raising them, affii some in thawing them, which is done 
gby throwing them into spring j^'iter. A considerable loss in 
the crop is also there incured, when left in the ground j for. 



FX^MER's assistant. 391 

by freezing and thawing rppeatedly, as they do in that 
climate, many of them rot betore Spring. 

OLhers, for the purpose of preserving them in the field, 
turn the rows under with a deep furrow run on one side; 
but this renders them somewhat troublesome to raise again, 
especially when the ground is frozen ; though in this way 
tl)€y are kept sweeter and fresher, than when stored in high 
heaps, covered with earth anfl straw, or sometimes wuh 
straw only, as is practised in that Country. 
' In the Spring, or at any time when the ground is suffi- 
ciently dry and unfrozen, those turned under with the 
plouph, as just mentioned, might readily be raised with 
the toirk described under Potatoe. 

It is probable that the greater warmth of our Summers 
will afford larger crops of turnips, than can be raised in 
Greatbritain; and of course render the culture more advan- 
tageous; unless the gre»ater severity of the Winters, ift the 
Northern States, should there be found too great a draw- 
backon the profits, by requiring too much expense for the 
supply during that season. We believe, however, that the 
expense of stoinng for the Winter-suppfy, would be found 
of no great amount, e^n where the Winters arc long and 
cold. 

Inithe more southerly States, this expense would be but 
tnftiifg. In the low lands of North Carolina, for instance, a 
tract admirably calculated for the turnip culture, all that 
would be necessary to be stored of the crop, would be a 
supply for about five weeks; and farther south still, less 
would be requisite. We are not particularly informed, fiow- 
ever, whether large growths of these plants can be raised 
much farther to the sou^h; though 'we believe they may be 
grown to a good sJze in almost all the milder climates. 

It would be advisable to turn under a small part of the 
crop of the common turnips, in the manner before men- 
tioned, to be taken up as early in the Spring as the ground 
should become thawed and rid of the snow, as these would 
then be fresh for use for some time, and until it was pro- 
per to begin upon the crop of ruia-baga, which should last 
until the season for grass. A part also that is to be stored 
for Winter^ even in the Northern States, may be laid in a 
high long heap and covered with straw, and some earth 
upon that, in order to be fed out before the approach of the 
severer part of the season ; as this covering will commc 
serve to protect the roots from frost of moderate degr1 
and if some of them should even get frozen they may be 
thawed, by being thrown in spring water, without receiving 
any essential injury from the frost. 

Perhaps it might be as wel!,^ in our colder cUmeites, to 
store the whole Winter-supply in this W£^, and let tiiem 



392 FARMER'S ASSISTi\Nl\ 

become frozen, as they would remain in this state during 
the cold season, and might be thawed, as ihey are to be 
used, in the way just mentioned; the expense of which 
would be of no great amount. Or ihe roots might be taken, 
in their frozen state, and steambojled, by which operation 
their nucrimenta! qualities would be so much improved, as 
amply to repay this additional expense. 

We will now describe a method of constructinp: an apart- 
ment, sufficienily warm, for preserving turnips from fr^ez- 
inp^ in the colder part of the Winter. 

For storing two thousand bushels, an apartment would be 
requisite of about thirty feet long, sixteen wide, ancj^eight 
in ht'ight. To afford a room of these dimensions inlts in- 
side, let the building be, say, thirty-three feet long, nineteen 
wide, with beams across at the height of eight feet from 
the ground, and above the beams let it be, say, six feet up 
to th^ plates. It is to be covered, and enclosed wirh^clap- 
boards in the usual way. The upper part is to be for stor- 
ing hay; the low&r part, for turnips: But, in order to pro- 
tect them from the frost, it is to be Imed with a mass of 
sandy or other suitable earth, of the thickness of eighteen 
inches, or less, or more, as the seventy of the Winter may 
require. 

This is to be done by seting up studs round the inside, 
extending from the ground into 4he beams, enclosing the 
studs with boards, and filling the space between these and 
the clapboards with earth, as before mentioned. The hay 
above is to serve as a protection from that quarter; and a 
suflficiency of it must be left, until the turnips are fed out. 
As the earth soon becomes, dried, it will do no injury to the 
timbers of the building. ' 

Another method i?, to erect a building for holding hay, 
or other produce of the kind, with a cellar under it, for 
storing turnips, and with walls sufficient to keep out the 
frost. And another is, to lay these roots away in layers of 
moist sand ; that is. first a layer of turnips, then one of sand, 
and so on alternately, and ihcn cover the outside of the 
heap s\ilficiently with sand to keep out the frost. If some 
nearest the surface become frozen, they are to be thawed, 
as before mentioned. 

In this case, they should be only toped, and laid bottom 
upwards, the more effectually to prevent their vegetating. 
The taproots may be taken off as they are used. Lay- 
irf^them down in this manner, though attended with some 
expense, will serve ta keep them in a fresher state, than 
when laid away without sanci, especially if no m.eans be 
tak«n to ventilate the heap occasionally. This, however, 
may be easily eflected by tubes laid at the bottom of the 
heap, at suitabh xlistances from each other, into which fresh 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 393 

air is to be driven, in the manner described for driving 
water up aqueducts, under Manures The tubes may be 
made ot narrow strips of boards, wiih a groove cut in each) 
and then nailed together; and when thus made they should 
have a number of small holes bored in them, at propt-r dis- 
tances, tor Icting out ihe fresh air in every pan, which of 
course expels the foul air from the heap. 

' Every Farmer (s'»vs a practicaj^ Writer on Agriculture, 
In the new E linburg Encyclopedid) who wishes to have any 
of the varietKs of turnip ot a right kind, ought to save seed 
for himself. It is unnecessary to expect pure seed from the 
shopSi unless an attention is beswwed in the rearing and 
wining piocesses, exceeding what is Qsually given by those 
concerned in ilie pt'ocesses. H< nee heavy losses are ofien 
sustained by Cultivators who trust to these Agents; and this 
has been the case particulniy with ruta-baga. 

< A few years ago, this excelent root was nearfy given up 
by many Farmef's, because a spurious seed was furnished 
by the shops. However, by the attention of some respect- 
able Agriculturists, seed of a l)etter kmd has again been 
obtaioed," which muy restore the credit of this valuable root. 
This credit, however, is only to be preserved by a continue 
ance of the same sedulity which caused its renovation; or, 
in other words, by ke&pirig rutabaga at a distance from 
every other species of the turnip and cabbuge tribes, when 
forming its fl )wers, and procreating its successors* 

A yellow turnip of the common species, which, however, 
is not the common yellow garden-turnip, has lately been 
cultivated in England, on account of its being very nutri- 
mental, and capable ot being preserved nearly as lont( as 
ruia-baga. In growing, it muy stand, nearer together than 
the common white turnip, as it does not extend so much in 
circumference. 

Where ^Sheep are a part of the stock of fating cattle to 
be fed, during Fall, on the common turnips, a quantity suf- 
ficient for them noAy be left in the ground. Thus, if they 
are to consume a fourth ot the whole crop, leave every 
fourth row, anri by this mean their manure will be distribut- 
ed more equally over the whole irround. Ruta-baga may 
also be left m the ground, where Neat-cattle are to feed oa 
them, as the bulb of this root is entirely above ground; and, 
in such case, what is left by them may be eaten otf by 
Sheep. mi^ 

It may be advisable for those who undertake the culture 
ef ruta-baga to obtain the best of seed from England, as 
probably what is to be found in this Country has deteriorat- 
ed, for want of attention in raising it sufficiently remote 
irora all the other species of Brassica, By importing the 

50 



394 FARMER'S ASSISTi«LNT. 

seed, the advantage will also be obtained that is common 
to all change of s^ed'^. 

See Change of Seeds 

Three pouiids ot se«rd to the acre is amply sufficient, for 
either sort ot turnips. It is advisable to give this allowance, 
in order that if pan of ihe seeds should fail of vegetating, 
or some of the plants be eaten by insects, there will still 
be as many left growing as will be, wanted. Where consid- 
erable fields of turnips are grown, however, there is but lit- 
tle to be feared from insects ; tor, though they might be 
sufficiently numerous, when collected on a small patch of 
turnips, to destroy it; still, when they have several aqres t© 
feed upon, iheir ravages would not so essentially injur-e the 
plants, but that enough will remain fit for' cultivating. 

Where land is naturally rich, or where it has been well 
manured for a previous crop, turnips may be successfully 
grovj^n* without manuring them in the drills. A much less 
quantity of manure, however, will answer when applied in 
this latter way, than when mixed in the ground; but, if this 
method be t^ken, let the barn-dung be carted out in the 
Spring and mixed in the ground for a crop of potatoes, br 
Indian corn. ^ 

Where Innd has been previously prepared in the best 
manner for tlix (see flax) that crop may be first taken; 
and, if pulled vvhile green, and the ground immediately 
cleared of the crop, there will be time sufficient for a crop 
of turnips of the common sort, especiallyin our more south- 
erly climates i and in such the ground might be cleared of 
this crop in time to sow it with Winter-wheat. 

In raising set d for ruta-baga, we should advise to select 
a spot for the purpose, vufficVently remote from any place 
where the se<:'ds of the common turnip or of cabbages are 
raised: Manure , the ground well; mellow it with the 
plough; then set out good thrilty Ti^rge roots, taken from 
ground where they remained durmg tl»e preceding Winter; 
let them stand in rows at suitable distaix:es each way, and 
keep the ground clear of weeds while the plants are grow- 
ing the seed. 

If the stems bearing it are unable to sustaVi the weight, 
let them be sui)i)br'ed, on each side of the rows, by poles 
laid on crotched '^t-jkes drove into the ground. \Vhen the 
seed-crop has ful'v ripened, it is to be cut, dried, threshed 
out, &'■. the manner of don.g which requires no minme de- 
SCTiption. A similar method is also to be observed for t^is- 
ing seeds for the common turnip. 

We hiivf- dwelt thus at length on this article, as well on 
account of the proper mode of cultivating turnips not being 
generally understood in this Country, as from a conviction 



FARMERV ASSISTANT. 395 

of the importance of their culiure being introduced here, as 
a part ot ficld-husbaiidry, where the soil is suitable; and we 
beiieve that as much as one-halt ot the lands ot the United 
S'ates are adapted for iheir growth. Suppose that six hun- 
dred busiiels to the acre may be the average crop, where 
they are well cultivated and manured; they are worth 
twelve and a halt cents per bushel, tor leeding and fating 
cattle; the amount of wliich is seventy-fi^e dollars. 

Let us now calculate the expense of raising and gather- 
ing an acre : 

Three ploughings, and furrowing the ground, 2 days work ^5 
Preparing 15 loads of" roten dung, or compost, and laying 

it in the fun'ovvs,' say - - 5 

Covenng the manure, rolling, and drilling in the seeds, say 2 
Three poujids ot seed - - - 50 

Ploughing and hoeing the crop twice, say - 5 

Gathering the crop, &c. - - - 5 

Kent of the land - - - 5 



%27 50 



Deduct, say, gS 5(y, as being the aitibunt of benefit which 
the next crop will derive from this prepi^ruiion oi the 
ground, and manuring, and the expense wiii bt 1^25; giving 
g50, as the clear pj^blits of the turnip-' ro^^i ; jn amount, we 
believe, that is not commonly to be tquultd by any other 
crop that is usually' cultivated on ground of no greater fer- 
tility than is requisite tor turnips. 

In puling the average amount to be expected from the 
crop as above, we belitve we have not overrated it; as Mr. 
Baker, of Ireland, testifies his having raised forty-seven tons 
on an acre m that Country. The Irish acre is about one- 
half larger than the English, or that ot this Country. 

In preparing a former edition of this Work, we were in- 
duced to believe that, in point of profit, carrots were enti- 
tled to a preference, in the culture ot root-crops. They are 
certainly more nourishing than turnips; but they are usually 
less in produc, and the expense ot their culture is much 
greater. It would seem that the practical Agriculturists of 
Greatbritain, where the culture of all sorts ot roots has been 
tried, generally agree in giving a pn ference to the culture 
of turnips, where the soil i- most suitable for their growth. 

But see Mangle-wurtzel for the greatest product of 
root-crops, whtre iDc sou is adapted to its culture. ^ 

We add the toUowuig note of Mr. MelvilL as communi- 
cated to the Society ' for the Promotion of the useful 
Arts,* XTi this State. It will be seen that his method of 
culture is somewhat different from ^the most approved 
method in England, as described in this article. 



396 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

Note on tlie metliod of cultivating^ Turnifis on the Melvill farm, m 
Berkshire, Massachusetts, and winch received the premium from 
the Massachusetts Agricultural Society, October, 1817. 

Persuaded that the opir ion prevalent m this part of the 
country, i^elaiive to the culiivation of turnips,, was errone- 
ous; that, witti not much more labor and expense than for 
poiatoes, old imfiroved land could be made to produce, as in 
Europe, a mucn gri-au r quantity ihi^n in the usual manner 
ot raisinj^ them, on new land recently burnt over, or ors 
hog-land; 1 determined to appropria.e an acre on the farm 
belonging to my Father, and under my care, to this experi- 
ment. ' 

For this purpose, I selected a piece in ,a lot, which was 
probably one of the first cleared 6n the farm, and has cer- 
tainly been (from what I could learn from the Neighbors) as 
often under uILge as any o'her part of i-, and quite impov- 
ensbed: The soil a gravelly loam; in 1813, it was sowed 
to grain and stocked; in 1814 and 1815 mowed j 18i6,^half 
-the lot was planted to potatoes, manured in the hil! ; the 
other half was continued to grass, and plastered; on ijie 
20th May, 1817, ploughed up of the potatoe-l-nd half an 
acre, and th« same quantity of sward-land, immediately ad- 
joining. In this state it remained till the 20'>h Junf, when 
ploughed it a second time, and formed il into drills of 
twenty-eight inches; the next day carritd on fourteen loads 
of Hog-manure, seven of Sheep do. and seven of common 
barn- yard do and spread it, immediately, on the top of the 
drills; and in order to preserve the whole strength"iof the 
manure in the soil, as well as to produce quick vegetation, 
sowed the seed on the manure, and rolled it in the same 
day. The following d<iy, sowed oa the piece thirty bushels 
slacked lime, and filteen bushels house-ashes, and, to ex- 
tend the experiment, divided these top dressings equally on 
the different kinds ot manure (so as to ascertain wh^< ma- 
nure and which top-dressing was best suited to turnips) 
left about two square rods without^ either manure or top- 
dressing, and marked off three drills not to be hoed 
at all. 

In a few days, had the satisfaction to see that the seed 
had taken well; that part which had Sheep-manure and 
ashes appeared the best and most rank; while that without 
manure could hardly be perceived to have pierced the soil. 
*On the 10th July, harrowed between the drills, with a com- 
mon corn harrow, to extirpate weeds and loosen the soil. 
On the 15th July, exarnuied the field and .|ound no signs of 
worms; the part with Sheep manure anJ^iashes continued 
the most promising; that with Hog-manure and ashes, next. 
A^c r»ow hoed put the field (with a small hoe, about five 
inches wide and four inches deep, well steeled, and sharp 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 397 

on sides and face) so as to leava but one plant in four or 
five inches of space, as also to lake the earih fronn ihe re- 
maining plants. After this first hoeuijr, the drills with Hog- 
manure and ashes begm and continued to take tne Itad; 
those with neither manure nor top-dressing, and those not 
hoed, very diminutive m comparison. 

The 20ih July, harrowed again between the drills, ^nd 
the 26 h, hoed out the field a second and last time. 

Tne 1st August, began to thin them out by hand (at 
which time the turnips were in sizr; from two and a halt to 
three and a half inches, except those not manured and 
those not hoed, both which were quite small) and we thus 
continued to thin out every fvw days, to feed to the slock ; 
in this manner, sixty-three bushels were used, previous to 
the examination of the field, in the first week ol October, 
by Messrs. Strong and Osborri^ for the purpose of ascer- 
taining its produce, which they estimated to be eight hun- 
dred bushels. 

Ot) the 5ih November, began to take in the crop, and we 
had tioenty'Jive ox-cartloads^ which we estimated at good 
thirty bushels eachj ihcy weigl]^d about forty pounds the 
bushel, making at least fifteen tons proouccd trom the acre. 
The average weight of the turnips is, I think, fro#l four 
and a half to six pounds; several weighed ten pounds, and - 
one_thirte€n and a quarter pounds. The expense of cultiva- 
tion has been, as at foot, seventeen dollars seventy-five cents. 

Ploughing, harrowing, and drilling for crop, geting out and 

spreading manure - - ' ^ S^ ^^ 

Seed, and rolling - - _ <- - ^ 50 

Lime and ashes ... 4 

Sowing lime and ashes - - - 25 

Harrowing between drills twice - . 1 

Hoel% and clearing, a Man and Boy, twice - 4 50 



gir 75 



They were harvested and got in, in two days and a half, 
by a Man and a Boy, with an ox-team. 

The satisfactory result of this experiment (entirely novel 
in this part ot the country) may, I hope, induce many of my 
Brother Farmers to turn at least a small portion of their 
old natural grass-land into turiyp-fields. The trial will not 
require much extra labor or expense, and experience will 
prove to them that they can, not only keep their stock 
^theafier as well as better; but they can raise a much greater 
number, with a given quantity of hnd ; besides the incal- 
culable advantage of puting land in good heart for grain, 
especially wheat. I 

Necessity will ere long oblige iis to extend our green- 
cro/iss for we may be assured that, wilhoui them, we can 

llr 



398 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

neither keep the land clean nor in good heart ; nor can we 
keep large slocks ot caule to advan' Gfc. 

THO. MELVILL, jr. 
Pitt^Jirld. Dec. 18, 1817. 

JSTote. Having' seen some Publications of Mr. CobbetU since the 
foregoing- was prepared for the Press, we perceive that Gentleman 
is decidedly in favor of the cultivation of rutabaga almost entirely, 
instead of a cultiire, in part, of the common turnip ; and the reason 
of his preference of the former seems to be, that he considers it «s 
productive as the latter, more nutricious, and better relished by cat- 
tle. We think it probable that by earlier sowing, so as to give it long- 
er time for maturing, it may equal the product ^f the common sort; 
and of its superiority, in the two other particulars just mentioned, 
we have no doubt. The seed of this plant is to be had of the Agent 
of Mr. Cobbetty in the city of Newyork. 

Turnips of any sort, when fed to Milch -co wg, must always have 
their tops first taken off, as they impart an unpleasant taste to the 
B^ilk and butter. The tops may be given to other cattle. 



u. 

ULCERS. The following are Mr. Bartlet's directions 
for Ttafi- g ulcers, in Horses particularly. 

The first point is to bring them to discharge a thick mat- 
ter, whieh may generally be eifccted with the green oint- 
ment, or that together with precipitate. Should the sore 
still discharge a thin matter, apply balsam, oil ot turpentine, 
me-lied down with the common digestive, and the stroQg- 
beer poultice over them. 

See Tumors • ^' 

The part effected should be well warmed with fomentin|f, 
to quicken the circulation, 8cc. It the lips ot the sore grow 
callous, pare them down with a knife, and rub a little caus- 
tic over them. 

Where proud- flesh appears, let it be carefully suppressed. 
If it haS sprouted above the surface, pare it down with a 
knife, and rub the remainder with caustic. To prevent its 
rising again, sprinkle the soie part with equal parts of 
burnt-allum and red precipitate ; or wash it with sublimate 
water, and dress it with dry lint, and draw the bandage 
tightly over the sore; for a tight bandage is the most effect- 
ual in dissipating these funguses. ■^' 
^All the sinuses, or cavities, should be laid ople^^ as soon 
as discovered, after bandages have been inefT^ctually tried; 
but Where the cavity penetrates deep into the muscles, and 

4 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 599 

a counter-opening is impracticable, or hhzirdous ; or where 
the integuments of the muscles are consttnily driping or 
melting down ; these injeciions should be ustd For this 
purpose, take of Roman vitriol halt an ounce, dissolve it in 
a pint of water, decant i^ into another bottle, and add a pint 
of camphorated spirit ot wine, the same quaniiiy of the btst 
vinegar, and two ounces of EKvptiacutn This mixiure is 
also good for ulcerated greasy heels, which it will cleanse 
and dry. 

These cavities sometimes become lined within with a cal- 
lous substance ; and in such case they should be laid open, 
and the hi^rd substance ciit away. Where this cannot be 
done, scarify them, and apply the precipila e, rubing them 
now and then with caustic, butter of antimony, or equal 
parts of quicksilver and aquafortis. 

When the bone under the ulcer has become cariou*;, 
which may be ascertained by probing it, it should be laid 
bare, in order that the roten part may be removed. In this 
case, all the loose flesh should be removed, the bone scrap- 
ed smooth to the sound part, and then dressed with dry 
lint, or with pledgits diped in the tincture of myrrh, or 
euphorbium. 

Where the cure does not properly succeed, mei^rial 
physic should be given, at proper interval^; and, to correct 
the blood and juices, the aniimonial and alterative powders, 
with a decoction of guaiacum and limewater, are good. 

URINE. See Manures. 



VEGETABLE OYSTER. See Sajlsafy. 

VENTILATING OF GRAIN. M. Duhamel applied 
the ventilator to grain, in granaries, with'excelent effect in 
introducing pure air, and expeling the impure, in order to 
prevent the heating of the grain. ^ 

Mr. Deane recommends a common hand-bellows, for the 
purpose of carrying the air from it through a tube to the 
bottom of the grain, in different parts, and blowing in the 
pure air, which will of course expel the foul. Perhaps a 
better plan would be, to have a sufficient number of tubes, ^ 
with small holes in them at proper distances, laid at the bot- 
toms of bins for holding grain, witU one en(J of each tube 

ir 



400 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

projecting out, so that the bellows conld be applied to each 
alternately ; as this wouJd be more effectual for the purpose 
of expelinj; all the foul air. 

The tubes are quii kly made of narrow strips of board, by 
havini^ grooves cut in them, and then nailed together. One 
end of each tube should be closed. 

Grain that is to be sown should be frequently ventilated, 
if it be requisite to keep it long in a confined place, or it 
will lose much of its vegetative power. 

Where grain is to be kept for some considerable time, it 
should be thoroughly dried. Mr Humbert insists on this, 
for wheat in particular, not only for preserving it for years, 
but also for improving the quality of the fl .ur to be made 
from it. The method recommended by him, for drying it, 
is to spread it thinly on a floor for the purpose, and stiring 
it up frequently for a sufficient length of time, which may 
be three or four weeks, keeping the windows of the apart- 
ment open in dry weather, and winnowing the grain, by 
leting it down from one floor' to another exposed to a brisk 
wind 

We believe, however, that it may be as eFTectually dried 
in the bins where it is stored^ and with very little expeiise, 
by vl^tilating it with heated air. 

Under Warming of Rooms, the method of carrying 
heated air inio rooms is described. 

All that is necessary for carrying heated air into the bot- 
toms of bins of wheat is, in the first place, to carry this air 
in a tube from the heating-stove to a vacant place, left for 
the purpose, which should be central among the bins; and 
from this tube carry the air, in small ones, into those fixed 
in the bottoms of the bins, as before ^escribed Thus the 
heated air would flow' from the main tube into the small 
' ones, in evety direction, under the grain, and ascend 
through it, expeling all the moist air, .m-\6 at the same 
time drying the grain. In this way, tweniy^housand buShels 
of grain might probably be tlioroughly dried in two or three 
days, with a mere trifle of expense. ^ 

VERJUICE. M juic^ extracted from crabed unripe 
grapes or apples, too sour for wine or cider. The English 
crabapple is much used foe this purpose. 

VETCH (Vicia ) A kind of pulse, Jthe pods, being like 
those of pf^as, but smaller, and it is cultivated like fi Id-peas. , 
Some vetches are sown in the FjII, and are called Wuiter-jj^ 
vetches; ar.d others in the Spring, and arecalled Spring--^^ 
t vetches. They do not essentially exhaust the soil ; , antli^^i 
therefore Mr Livingston supposed that the Spring-vetch^,(5^ 
might be val«ul>ie \tx be sown en Summer-laliows, to pre- 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 401 

cede a crop of wheat. He accordiniarly made two trials of 
them, the seed being brought trom England; but the results 
of these not being perfectly satistactory, panidilurly in the 
product of seed, there is reason to believe^ that the culture 
was not such as it ought to be. The produce of his best 
experiment was at the rate of about twenty-five hundred 
weight to the acre. * The fodder (he says) appeared to be 
remarkably succulent, and extremely well calculated for 
Cows and Sheep/ He is, however, of opinion, that the 
cause of his failing in the requisite quantity of seed, which 
in England is twenty-five or thirty bushels to the acre, was 
owing to sowing too thick (three bushels to the acre) and 
to manuring with gypsum, which he supposes makes the 
plant run nriore to haulm than it otherwise would do. 

Probably this plant, when the seeds are imported, requires 
a naturahzation to the soil. At all events, if a ton and a 
quarter of this fodder could be raised to the acre, as a 
Summer fallowing crop, together with a due proportion of 
seed, the culture of it would be tolerably advantageous, by 
making this the intermediate crop between the breaking up 
of sward-land and a crop of wheat, as only one ploughing is 
requisite, after taking ofT this crop, for sowing the ground 
with wheat. 

Vetches which are sown in the Fall are used in the 
Spring for feeding Sheep and other cattle : They may after- 
wards be mowed for fodder; and it is said they may be 
mowed twice a year in warm climates. Mr. Livingston 
mowed the crop, which grew best, about the 20ih of 
August. 

There are different kinds of this plant, and perhaps each 
kind may not be equally well-suiied to our climate. Proba- 
bly, if further trials were made of this plant, results of a 
more favorable nature might be obtained. , 

VINE (Vith)^k'STi VINEYARD. Wherever any kinds 
of grapes grow wild, they may be there cultivaied to ad- 
vantage for jq^king wines, and may be habituated to a cold- 
er climate. Tn the more southerly parts of this State, there 
are two species of grapes, of which^ there are varieties; the 
black-grape, -oitis labrusca^ and the foxgrape, vitis vulfilna. 
In the more southerly climates, particularly on the waters 
of the Ohio and Mississippi, there are much greater varie- 
ties of these grapes. ' ;; 

For garden-grapes, Mr. Forsyth selects the ivhite musca* 
dine^ ov chasselas^ which is a great bearer; the white siveet- 
watery which^is very fine-tasted, and ripens in September; 
the black sweet-nvater^ which also ripens early; the large 
b lack- dust er^ which is harsh-tasted, being that of which the 
Oporto wine is made ; and the small black-cluster, which is 
pleasant-tasted. 51 * 



402 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

The spots most favorable for vineyards are the sides of 
hills or mountains, descending southwardly, or to the cust; 
but to the south is best; and let the soil be loose and nrieUow, 
but not liable to be much washed by heavy rains. S ff soils 
are not good; though by carting on much sand, and other 
loosening manures, they will answer tolerably well. The 
ground must be well mellowed by ploughing^', and mixed 
with sand, if not naturally sandy, and such manures as will 
serve to make it rich and keep it mellow. Where the hill 
sidt.s are steep (and such produce the best vines) it is ad- 
visable to cart on stones of small and middling size to mix 
with the soil, which help to keep it moist and warm; and 
a part of ihem are to be laid along in ridges on the lower 
side of each row of vines, to keep the earth from washing 
away. Round the vineyatd let a good substantial fence be 
made, which will keep out both Men and beasts. The 
northerly side of the vineyard should be well protected 
from the northerly winds. 

For a selection of vines for planting, Mr Johnson recom- 
mends the following, as being hardy and best-suited to more 
northerly climates. The blafk Auvernat; the black Orleans; 
the blue-cluster; the nnller grafie (these m-ske the best Bur- 
gundy) the black Hamburg; me red Hamburg; the white 
Muscadin; the Muscadrlla; the rrtelie blanc; the ivhite Mo- 
rillon; ibe white Au-jernat; and the gray Auvernat. 

The seven following kinds also ripen in i^epiember; but 
are not quite so hardy, and should therefore occupy the 
warmer parts of the vineyard, or be planted in more south- 
erly climates: The Chasselas blanc, or royal Muscadine^ 
the Malvois, or Malmsey; the gray Frontinac; the red 
Frontinac; the black Lis-bon^ the white Lisbon; and the 
Chasselas JVoir. 

In addition to these kinds, let the fox and the black- 
grape, before mentioned, as being Jndi^^us, be also added 
to the list; the tormer of which is proball^ inferior to none 
of them. •' . 

The next point is to select branches for the^cutings with 
which to plant tlife vineyard. These are to oe taken from 
the bearing part of the Vines ; and among these, such as are 
short-jointed, from which you may expect vines which will 
be thrifty and fruntul. They should be sound, of a healthy 
appearance, thick set with eyes, and the nearer the last 
^year's growth the better. Let: them be cut close to the old 
^ood, where they will be more firm ; and they are not to 
be cut to their proper length, which is about five inches, 
uhtil you are about to plant them in the vineyard. Good 
branches, of the length of three feet, may afford tour or five 
cutings ; though those which are nearest to the old wood 
are esteemed the best. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 403 

Some cut off the branches, to be ustd tor cufings, in Oc- 
tober; and others aguin, in M^rch or April It at the liiiier 
times, they arc to be planted »n April or Mjy; and the next 
Winter they must be secured trom the trobt by coarse litter 
piled up round them; which, in the Spru g Jollowmg, may 
be strewed over the ground tor manure, ll ihe cutings be 
planted in the Fall, they are be in the sanu manner pre- 
served trom the Winier-trost: One method is also to set 
them out closely in the Fall, in some wtrm dry spot, in a 
trench about a toot wide, which should be well prepared by 
diging, and over them erect a root mude ot straw, vvi 11 se- 
cured, to keep ot the tiosi, and the heads ot ihe branches to 
be kepc in an upngiit posuion, by poles or laihs surrounding 
them tor ihut purpose, m order to prevent their lying on 
the ground, and thus becoming mouldy. 

Ill planting the cuiings m the vineyard, afier the ground 
has been well prepared, as belore directed, let the thick 
ends be cut i-ff aqutre with a sharp knite, and the upper 
ends obliquely, aooui halt an inch above the eye. Plant 
them at me distance ot about eight or ten teei each way, 
and let the earth be pressed round them with the toot. 
Tuey are to be set in an inclined posiuon, leaving the up- 
per bud or eye nearly as low as the surtace ot thtj^soil, and 
be careful not to injure the eye in treading the earth about 
it. In the Spring, while nightly trosi prevails, let this bud, 
or eye, be siigiuiy covered with earth in the evening, to 
save it trom the Irosi, and again uncovered in the morriing. 
Remember to drive in ihe stake, on which the shoot is to 
be trained, at the north side, so as to give the shoot all the 
warmth ot the sun. When the shoots begin to put torth, 
for some will rise trom under ground, let them ail grow for 
a certain time, in order that you may have an opportunity 
of determining which is lik' ly lo be the best; and these are 
the roundest, shorte^i-juinted, and the most thick^set with 
eyes. Those which grow long and spindly, with tew eyes, 
are not good. When you have thus selected the bes?, pinch 
off all the resL* tor all the nourishment which the roots can 
afford is reqinlite for its growth. As it advances in growth, 
fasten it to the sunny sine ot the stake, sp that it be not 
beaten about with the winds, and pinch off its tendrils, lat- 
erals, nephews, and suckers; not closely, however, but at 
some liiile distance trom the body of the main shoot. 

This shoot may rise to the height ot eight or ten feet in 
a Summer, if left to grow its luli length; but its growth 
must be checked at the height of not more than tout feet; 
otherwise its strength becomes exhausted in the production 
of waste wood, and the head becomes feeble, and incapable 
of b aring the lateral branches, v/hich it is destined to 
support. 



404 FARMER'^ ASSISTANT. 

October, or rather when the leaf begins to fall off, is the 
time lor i riming 5 and then the branch should be cut down 
to two good eyes, not reckoning the lowermost next the old 
wood, which IS called the dead eye ; or several eyes may 
be left, which, during the next Spring, will furnish a num- 
ber of sprouts, and from these select the two best. 

The vine being thus pruned, some direct to open the 
ground round the roots, to the depth of three or four inches, 
and to cut away the roots to that depth ; not closely, how- 
ever; and h'X this be repeated for the first three years; the 
use of which is to make the vine take deeper root, which it 
is said makes them more durable, fruitful, and less liable to 
be injured by droughts. 

No particular notice is here taken of the method spoken 
of by Mr. Johnson, of bending the vines down to the ground 
at tne approach of each Winter, during the first three Win- 
ters, and covering ^hem slightly with earth, to protect them 
from frost; because it is not believed that this process is 
requisite. It it be found so, the head must not be covered 
with earth, but with chaif, or some such dry stuff, to keep 
it cool and dry. 

The second year's growth should only exhibit two branch- 
es trained. The good eyes will all shoot forth in the Spring; 
nmd let them all grow to the length of about eight inches^ 
b( fore you select ihe tivo most proper. These should have 
the characteristics already described, as necessary for the 
best branch of the First year's growth. Check the branches 
of the second year's growth at about five feet, pinching off 
the laterals, &:c. at about four inches, as before directed. 
In the Fall, when the leaves begin to drop, trin(> the vines, 
again, as before. Now you have two main branches to trimj 
and these should be xut down to within four or five good 
eyes of Jast year's wood, dealing with the upper roots as 
before, and burying the vines during "^'^Vinter, as before 
mentioned, if this be found necessary. 

The third year presents two main branches, each fur- 
nished with four or five eyes. Proceed asv^efore in the 
choice of shoots to be reserved, training only two from each 
branch : Thus you will have four main branches this year. 
If you find your vines begin to bear this year, pluck off 
nearly all the clusters while young ; for, by too early bear- 
ing, the vines become debilitated, and materially injured for 
bearing afterwards. 

With respect to croping and pruning the vine, be always 
careful to check its aspiring nature, and keep it of humble 
size, by which means it is always easy to be tnanaged by 
manual labor, and less subject to be injured by the violence 
of winds. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 405 

In the fourth year, training again two branches from each 
trained branch of the previous-^year, you will have eight 
branches to each vine. Y m, therelore, proceed as betore 
in humbhng the vine, and pioporiioning us quantity ot truit 
lo Its ability to bearj and rt member not to let the vines 
bear all the fruit they pu;. forth ; until they are lully able to 
do it, withoui injury to them alter wards* 

All this time, the ground of the vineyard is constantly to 
be kept light and mellow, and perfectly clear of weeds and 
grass. For this purpose, straw, chuff, fljx-shives, and every 
thing of the kind is to be carried on, i»nd spread over the 
ground, to keep it mellow and moist, and to prevent its 
washii.g. Observing this the fiist four years, greatly for- 
wards the vines, and at the same time prepares them for 
good crops afterwards; nor should the practice be atter- 
wards wholly discontinued. 

In planting a vineyard, it is also requisite to have a nur- 
sery of the vines at the same time, to supply those which 
may die when planted out. The ground of the nursery 
should not be so rich as that of the vineyard ; it should be 
kept clear of weeds and well hoed ; and it should be planted 
pretty thickly, in order that the roots do not extend too 
much. 

A vineyard of an acre should tontain but' two sorts of 
grapes, and one of two acres should not generally contain 
more than tour sorts. Every kind of grape should be made 
into wine by itself, and liot mixed with others. 

The vine, where the climate and soil is most suitable, 
will grow to a prodigious size, and live a surprising length 
of years. Strabo speaks of a vine which was twv Ive feet in 
circumference ; and Pliny also mentions one which was six 
hundred years old I In the western parts ot this State, and 
elsewhere in that direction, I have seen them, wheiC; Irom 
the size of l^^trecs on which they were supported, and 
they must hmve" grown up with the trees, they could not be 
less than a hundred years old. 

Mr. Jqfinson observes, that, from the prices which grapes 
have been sold for in our largest cities, the income of an 
acre of vineyard would amount to six hundred dollars ; but, 
perhaps, this calculation is rather too large. Be this as it 
may, it is certain that their cultivation, whether they are to 
be made into wine, or to be picked, and sent into our cities, 
or elsewhere, for sale, must undoubtedly be profitable. 

The method of preserving grapes to send abroad, is to 
pack them up in dry saw-dust or bran ; and in that situation 
they may be exported, if they should not be wanted at 
home, with the same facility and safety that they are at pr'j- 
sent sent from other Countries into this, for 'sale. Probably 
they ought to be put up £i little before they are fully ripe. 



406 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

In Albany and Newyork, they sell for as much, upon an 
average, ds twenty-five cents per pound. 

Tne toregoing is mostly an abridgment of Mr. Johnson^ 
on the cuUure oi the vme, and very nearly at;re-^s wuh Mr. 
Winterbotham on the same subjt ct. Mr. Forsyth describes 
a new method ot training the vines, for wall or garden-fruit; 
but this does not seem applicable to the vintyttrd. His 
niethod is exhibited in his drawings, which are well worthy 
of examination. Other essays on this culture may ulso be 
worthy ot examination; such as those ot Sfieechley MilleVy 
Antili^ and that contained in the Encyclop.du; und cvtn the 
song ot the first ot Roman Poets on the subjtci, it it should 
not afford additional instruction, may neveiiheless be found 
possessed ol charms which mcty more strongly incline the 
Man ot taste to the industrious culture of the vine. 
For the method of mdUing the wine, see Wine. 

Mr Livingston^ in describing the beautiful country which 
lies upon the Loire, between Nantz and Orleans, in France, 
notices ♦ the farm-houses surrounded by gardens fiiU-d with 
fruit-trees, with vines, trained up the trees, and extended 
from one to the other. Every house, he says, is also co- 
vered with a large grape vine, at least on three sides.' 
This practice he very justly recommends tor Farmers, as 
being highly ornamental to small houses, useful as it re- 
gards health, convenient for shade; while the fruit, though 
not intended for wine, migjht be made a source of family 
comfort and enjoyment. Ht. observes, too, that the eartti 
round dwellings is always rich and warm; and therefore 
well adapted to the grape. 

VINEGAR. The method of making this liquid out of 
cider, wine, &c. is too generally known to need any descrip- 
tion; but it is not so generally kuown that a very sharp 
"vinegar may also be made out of whey. ThJ^, method of 
making it, as described by Mr Genets is very sijdi pie. 

' After having clarified the whty, it is poured into casks 
with some aromatic plants, or elder-blossoms, as suits the 
fancy, and exposed in open air to the sun, where it soon 
acquires an uncommon dcgiee of acidity.' 

Vinegar may also be made from the juice of elder- 
berries, mixed with a suitable proportion of water, and ex- 
posed to the sun, as beiore mentioned. It may also be made 
from the juice of the black-birch, or of the maple, when 
either is boiled down sufficiently; or from the juice of beets, 
carrots, turnips, potatoes, &c. when boiled and the juice 
pressed out, and exposed in like manner. 

•VIVES. A swelling, says Mr. Bartlet^ of the kernels 
undeF the ears of a Horse, being the part first affected. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 407 

They seldom come to matter, but perspire ofF. if warm 
clothing, anointing with marshmallow ointment, and a mod- 
erate bleeding or two be applied. Qui, should the inflam- 
mation continue, notwithstanding these means, a sujjpura- 
tion should be promoted. For this purpose, make an oint- 
ment of an ounce of mercury and half an ounce of Venice 
turpentine, pounded together till the mercury is no longer 
visible ; then add to it two ounces of hogslard, und anoint 
the swellings with thisr^ill a suppuration takes place. 
For destroying proud-flijsh in the sore, see Ulcers 
Mr. Martlet says, When these swellings appear in an old 
Horse they are signs of great malignity, and often of an in- 
ward decay, as well as foreruners of the gl Jiiders. He also 
says. In young Horses they are critical, and should be mun- 
aged as above, instead of applying the above ointment at 
first to disperse the swellings ; as in that case there is dan- 
ger that the disease may be thrown on the lungs, or inlo 
the thick flesh of the hinder par's of the Horse, where they 
ivill form deep imposthumes, and sometimes kill him. 



w. 

WAGON. See Carriages. 

WALLS. Stone-walls, for fences, have already been 
spoken of. ^ 

See Stones, 

The cellar- walls of a house should be laid with stone and 
lime; not only for standing more firmly and a greater 
length of timejKbut also to keep out the frost. If they be 
not thus laid,:it generally becomes necessary to bank up the 
outsides with Horse-dung, or something that will keep out 
the frost, which tends to rot the sills, and at the same time 
has a very mean appearance. 

The stone- walls of many ancient castles and other build- 
ings, in Europe, are principally held together, not by bind- 
ing, as is now practised, but by the force of cement. This 
cement, it is believed, is nothing more than a due propor- 
tion of sand and lime, made very thin with water, and pour- 
ed into the middle of the wall; not merely plaisiering in 
among the stones, as is done at present. The advantage of 
this method is, that the lime being so plentifully mixed with 
water, and for such a length of time before it evaporates, 
has sufficient time in part to dissolve and be again crystaiiz- 
ed; and, in crystalizing, it adheres to the stones, and thus 



408 FARMER'S ASSISTANT; 

forms a solid mass. The wall must be saturated with this 
cement. Even pebble stones may be thus cemented togeth- 
er in a wall ; provided they be kept in their places, and the 
mortar be kept from runmg out through them till it has be- 
come hardened. 

The due proportions of lime and sand, for making the 
strongest cement, must, however, be previously ascertained 
by experiments made for the purpose; as the proportion of 
each depends on the quality of e^qh ; that is, if the lime 
have but little of other earthy matter m it, the less of it will 
answer ; and the more sharp and gritty the sand, ^he less 
lime will be requisite. 

Mr Livingston mentions the houses built of earth in the 
neighborhood oi Lyons, in France, which are well worthy 
of attention, as a matter of economy. They are built two 
and three stories liigh, and many of them have stood a cen- 
tury. The earth used for building them is a gravelly loam. 
A clay or a sand will not answer, but almost every other 
earth will The earth is pounded hard with sharp-edged 
btietles, being put in frames made for the purpose, so as to 
give the masses a square shape proper for being laid up in 
the wall. These walls are sometimes plaistered on the out- 
side, but will answer well without. Tiie barns, and garden- 
walls there, are built of the same material. Columns are 
also formed of the earth, in the same manner, in moulds 
made for the purpose. » The extreme cheapness of these 
buildings (says Mr. Livingston) the iaciliiy with which they 
are made, their warmth, their security against fires, re- 
commend them so strongly, that I shall make myself com- 
plete master of the art belore I come over, and teach it to 
my Countrymen.' It is to be hoped that a design so patri- 
otic has not been frustrated, and that its execution may be 
duly appreciated. 

,,'•■'■■■ '^Py- 

WALNUT. There are but four sp^^ies o| this tree, in 
this Country, which are indigenous. The enumeration of 
these, by Mr. De Witt, which it is believed is the only cor- 
rect one, is as fiiows: The black-walnut (Juglans nigra) 
the butternut (Juglans cinerea) the IHinois-nut (Juglans 
olivae formis) oi cc ch of whicti there are no varieties, and 
the hickory- nut (Juglans albd) of which there are several 
varieties; such as the shap^hark, the smoothbark, &c. 

The nuts of the three first- mentioned, and of the shag- 
bark, are good; some of those of the varieties of the smooth- 
bark are tolerable, and some are bitter. The natural growth 
ot the three first-mentioned indicates a dark-colored, fertile 
soil; that of the shagbark, one it.clining to clay; and the 
smoothbarked varieties commonly grow on warm gravelly 
loams, or other dry loamy, or sandy-loam soils. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 409 

Mr. Forsyth makes mention of fifty walnut-trees, in 
England, being rented for fiky pounds sterling a year; and 
that the. Lessee cleared that amount from them, af er pay- 
ing the rent. Most probably, these were the shagbark 
walnut. He directs that walnut-trees should be raised 
from the nut, when fully ripe ; that they will be fit to trar^s- 
plant the first Autumn after sowing ; when they are to be 
put into beds, and transplanted every second year, until 
they are large enough to set out where they are to grow. 

Which management, he says, causes them to throw out 
fine horizontal shoots, and brings them to a bearing state 
much sooner, than when they make deep tap-roots; that, 
when they are large enough to be trimed up to the height 
of seven feet, they should be set out in the orchard, at the 
distance of about six feet apart ; and, as they grow larger, 
those found to be the best bearers are to be preserved, and 
the rest cut away. In triming the trees, his composition is 
to be applied {see Fruit-trees) and, previous to seting 
them out, he directs that the ground should be trench- 
ploughed. 

See Trench-ploughing. 

The shagbark wahmt only is culdvated in England^ and 
this tree is no doubt the most valuable for its- fruit, as it is 
a more plentiful bearer than any other. Such land as 
that on which it naturally grows is probably best for its 
cultivation. ^ 

WARMING OF ROOMS, &c. As it is essential to 
make a little fuel answer for this purpose, as well as for 
boiling, baking, roasting, Sec. we will here describe a cheap 
and simple method for all these purposes; leaving every 
one to vary from it, by the use of stoves, or otherwise, as 
he may think proper. 

Make, of sheet-iron, something in the shape of a potash 
kettle, but not near so deep in proportion to its breadth on 
the rim, and let it be, say, two and a half feet in diameter 
across the rim ; set it, bottom upward, on brick- work suita- 
ble to the dimensions of the rim, about ten inches^ high, 
leaving a place to fix an iron door, like the door of a com- 
mon stove : Build a brick wall all round and over this, 
leaving a space between it and the sheet-iron, of about two 
inches, and an opening where the door, just mentioned, is 
placed. Apertures are to be left in this outer wall, for in- 
serting tubes for carrying off the air that is heated, between 
the outer wall and the sheet-iron, into difF^jrent apartments. 

When a fire is made within the part covered by the 
sheet iron, the air between that and the outer wall be- 
comes rarified, and of course ascends through the tubes into 
the different apartments or rooms, while the fresh air is 

52 



410 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

constantly rushing in to supply its place. Thus, while a 
constant current of cold air is rushing in below, a like cur» 
rent of warm air is carried off into the apartments where it 
is wanted. When any one of these is sufficiently filled with 
warm air, the tubes leading into it are to be stoped in part, 
or wholly, till more heated air is wanted. It would be most 
advisable to let the heated air into each room in different 
places, in order to distribute it more equally. 

In a room warmed in the usual way, about two-thirds of 
the whole heat of the fire passes out of the chimney. In 
the mean time, all the air in the room will also ha«eipassed 
off in that direction in less than an hour, and of course cold 
air must rush in to supply its place. Thus the whole air 
of such room has to be heattd over again once an hour, and 
this is to be done with only a third of the heat afforded by 
the fire. Now, according to the plan here recommended, 
the air in a room would require a deg?'ee of heat equal to 
warming the whole over again, about once in six hours, as 
the heated air is not to be allowed to pass off out of a chim- 
ney ; and for this purpose of heating, at least two-thirds of 
the heat of a smaller fire can be applied. Thus a room, to 
be warmed in the common way, requires a fire which gives 
twelve times the quantity of heat that is required in the 
method above described. ^ 

This heating-stove may be set in the kitchen ;, shut a cel- 
lar kitchen, or one lower than the dwelling rooms, would 
be best. It may also be set in a small building adjoining the 
house; but let it be set lower than the rooms of the house. 

But, in order to render this complete, let the steam- 
cooking, baking, and roasting apparatus be attached to it. 
For this purpose, let the smoke, and the heat that goes 
with it, pass out through a hole about four inches square, 
made in the side of the sheet-iron, oppos^e the door ; and 
let it be carried in a zigzag manner, ba<?|gand forward, un- 
der ihe bottom of a boiler, made of sniet-iron, and this 
will sufficiently heat the water in that to afford the requisite 
degree ot steam for the vessels used for cooking by steam, 
as well as for heating water in adjoining wooden vessels of 
different sizes, to be used for different purposes. The pipe 
conducting off the smoke, &:^ after having passed lander 
every part of the bottom of the boiler, is then to be carried 
upwards, and pass round tlnree sides of a small oven, made 
ot sheet-iron, which is to be used for baking and roasting. 
The outside of the smoke- pipe, and of the door of the oven, 
should be thickly coated with powdered charcoal, in order 
to prevent the heat passing off through the exterior surface, 
until it shall have ascended above the oven. 

Thus, with one-half of the fuel used in a kitchen fire- 
place, every room, in a house of moderate size, may be 



•' ( FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 411 

warmed; all the culinary business may be performed; roots 
may be boiled lor 'tattle in. large vessels made ior^the pur- 
pose ; and all this m-ty be pertormcd without hull ihe nsk 
tiom fires which attends the usual methods. 

For close-sioves to be set ifi rooms, it is believed, that the 
Russian shoves will be found preterable to those made of 
iron. Tht^y are built of brick, and may be made of dift'erent 
forms. They should be supi>lied with air from wuhoui the 
room they are intended to warm;' as this will be a great 
saving of^ the heated air in the room- They are used en- 
tirely in- Russia, und they require less fuel than our iron 
stoves, as iwo cords of good wood will supply one of them 
a wUole Winter. Coding may also be done in them, as in 
our iron stoves, % having an oven fixed in them for the 
purpos,e. i^ 

WATER. This is found, by chemical experiments, to 
*be the same substance as air, but in a more condensed 
formi being composed of about eighty-five parts ot oxygene, 
and fifteen parts of hydrogene, gas. 
See Air. 

This substance, however, in its condensed and in its gase- 
ous state, is the essential food of plants; as no vegetation 
can be produce4|jwi.hout air, nor without water; but, with 
these aloi^e? every species of plant can be jmade to vegetate 
to a certain degree. 

It is, however, unnecessary to dwell minutely on this ar- 
ticle ; but something should be said of its application to 
meadow lands; of drawing it off, where too abundant; and 
of applying it to plants. 

I Where water can be carried over lands, without too great 
an expense, it should always be attended to, as great crops 
of hay may be |!iad from such grounds. The means of wa- 
tering the groun^ or of taking it off, should be completely 
under control; Wr, if too much be suffered to run on, it 
m;iy do more hurt than good. Chalybeate waters, and such 
as are impregnated with mineral acids, should be avoided. 
That which has a rich sediment is best. The quantity 
should be proportioned to the nature of the soil; as sandy 
grounds require more, and^tiff soils less. The channels 
should be so made as to caif|»*the water to every part, ex- 
cept where the ground is naturally wet. The main channel 
should just have descent enough to cause the water to run; 
and the lateral branches should be run in such directions as 
that the descent be very '^^oderate, and at the same time 
convey the water to every part of the ground. Sometimes 
it is necessary to curry off the surplus water by other chan- 
nels, where the ground hasjittle ho|lows runing through it. 



412 FARMER'S ASSISTANT^ 



^, 



When the weather is hot, the water should be taken off 
the ground. The night, and days which are cool and 
cloudy, are the best times for applying it. 

In the Spring, it should notjae applied till the ground is 
soniewhat dry; and after the grass begins to start let the 
quantity be diminished, and kt it also be sloped during 
rainy weather. When the grass is pretty well grown, no 
water should be applied, except in cases of drought. After 
taking off the second crop, the water may be thrown on 
more plentifully ; but it must be taken off some time before 
the Winter-frost commences. ^ " * * 

The foregoing is believed to be thf most suitab)le direc- 
tions for watering meadows, as practised: in this Country; 
but this fulls far short ot the most approved practice in 
Greatbritain. There the spots selected tor the purpose are 
so nearly level, after the ground has received its proper 
shape, that the water, which is let in at one side, will but 
barely run off at the other. The ground is shaped exactly 
for the purpose, by raising it were it is too low, and sinking 
it where it is too high ; it is then made into ridges about 
nine yards wide, and a loot in height, with an uniform de- 
scent from the middle of each to the extremes; a shallow 
channel is then made on the highest part ^, each ridge for 
conducting the water on them, and anoihCT on the lowest 
ground between them for carrying it off A canal is made 
on the upper side of the piece ot ground for supplying the 
water, and another on the lower side for carrying it off, 
after it has served the purpose of irrigation. Thus the wa- 
ter is let out of the upper canal into the channels made^on 
the Jfigher parts of the jridges, which channels it fills, and 
overflows just enough to impart a due proportion of water''^ 
to each ridge; and thus gently overflowing spreads over the 
surface, till it is received in the lowerjt'^^nnels, and by 
them is carried into the lower canal, and^^hce carried off. 

It will readily be seen, that no water should be suffered 
to run off into the lower canal from the channels which 
carry it on the heights of the ridges. The channels should 
be stoped at their lower ends. The water in the upper 
canal should be under perfect control; so that no more than 
is necessary be let into the higj|Br channels, and that it may 
be taken off at pleasure. Where the supply of water is 
small, a part of the meadow may be irrigated at a time, and 
part at another, in succession, till each part has, in turn, 
been duly supplied. This is to be done by flood-gates, to 
confine the water in the upper canal to the parts where it 
is required. 

The upper canal is to be supplied from a durable stream, 
3nd the more turbid this is, the better. Clear limpid streams 
are l^, no means so good for the purpose. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 413 

This method of>«i irrigation is a beautiful and ^grnious 
part of husbaiidrjy? ; and seeing that it has been so'success- 
fully practised in England, it would be desirable that trials 
of It should be made here; as in many spots it might be 
found very profitable. 

For raising water to irrigate lands, which are above its 
level, diiTv^rent kinds of wheels may be used, which are so 
well known as to render a desci;iH)t»n of them unnecessary. 
The method of raising 'water by the force of wind, in the 
manner it is raised out of the dykes in Holland, may also be 
resorted to, if it bt tound that the profiis will warrant the 
expense. The Read^ will find, in Darwi7i*s Pliitologia^ a 
description of a very cheap wind machine for raising water, 
^hich probably mi^it be in some places applied to advan- 
tage, but most particularly in raisingi water irorn wells, for 
supplying cattle with drink. *, 

Water-turrowing lands which are wet, when sown with 
Summer-gram, is of gueat importance in carrying oflf the 
surplus water; and the furrows should be made deep, and 
cleared out witn a shovel, and carried in such a direction 
as will caus^k the ground to be the least gullied by heavy 
showers. The same may be said of grounds sown with 
Winter-grain ; but wet grounds, particularly il they lie flat, 
should never bdrapplied to this use; for^ if the ground be 
ever so well water-furrowed, the furrows usually become so 
filled with ice as to render them useless. Grounds, how- 
ever, of moderate descent may be , thrown up into high 
ridges, so as to answer tolerably welfi in most Winters, far 
winter grain; but, if they be somewhat steep, this manage- 
me'nt usually proves injurious by the washings of heavy rains. 
Huiher let such grounds be hollow-drained, and then neither 
ridging nor water-furrowing will be necessary. 

With regard to v/atenng of plants, all that is necessary 
to be said, is, tljtat cold water, as drawn from wells, should 
never be applied^o them. The water should be exposed 
to the sun tor such iime as will render it as warm as rain- 
water; and the quantity applied at once should never be 
very great ; but rather like the application of a gentle rain. 

WATER-CHESNUT. .^\\\^ tree is called Lin-kit) in 
China, where it is cultivatecT for its fruit, which has a cool- 
ing and agreeable taste. It is sometimes sold in that Coun- 
try, like filberts, in a green state ; sometimes it is dried, 
powdered, and made, into ^eoup, or baked, with a proportion 
of sugar and honey. ., ^ 

All that IS necessary, for propagating and raising the tree, 
is to throw the seeds into the shallowest parts of ponds, and j 
rivers, which have a southern expbsure, as sucH are the 

-* , * 

4 



414, FARMER'S ASSISTANT, ' %C 

natural places for its growth. The seeds -are sown in the 
latter paft of Autumn. 

As this tree is grown on lands which are.otherwise total- 
ly unproductive, it would most probably be found a valuable 
addition to the catalogue of plants, proper to be cultivated 
in this Country. 

WATER-LILLY, of China (JVelumbium ) This plant 
is called Lieii-wha^ by t^e Chinese, and its root is said to 
be the most valuable of any known, where suitable grounds 
can be had for its culture. It is only proper to be grown 
in marshes. In such grounds, it grows tjp the length of 
fiiteen feet, and ot the thickness o#^ a Man's arm. The 
outside is white, and the inside yellow. Ii is an excelent 
vegetable for the table. The Chinese pretend that it yields 
the liquor of immortality. 

It is said not to grow successfully in Europe; but that 
part of the world is dissimilar in ciimute to China. The 
climate o\ this Country is similar to that of the latter Coun- 
try, though perhaps a little colder in the same degrees of 
latitude. It might be of essential service to this Country to 
have the seeds of the plant brought thence, t5 be sown as 
well in our lands which are naturally marshy, as in those 
which might be rendered .so by flooding ;^s, what might 
not be needed of the root, for culinary purposes, would be 
useful for feeding and fating cattle. The plant is readily 
cultivated in China, by merely sowing the seeds in grounds 
sijitable to its growth. "^ 

WEEDS. Generally speaking, most of those which are 
difficult to extirpate, by common culture, will be found to^ 
yield to constant yearly crops of such plants as grow very 
high and very closely. For this purpos^|everal crops of 
hemp in succession would no doubt be M^ind sufficient to 
eradicate almost any weed. The tall oatsgrass, and some 
other grasses which grow very high and thick, would also 
be found very useful tor this purpose.^ 
See Grasses 

Crops of carrots and other roots, which require close 
weeding, would also be found excelent in eradicating some 
weeds. It is also believed, ihiK planting grounds with po- 
tatoes, after the Irish method, will be found sufficient to 
smother almost every kind of weed. 

See POTATOE. 

Something shall now be separately sliid of some of those 
weeas which are most formidable to the Farmer. 

The Canada thistle ( Cnicus Arvensis) flourishes in close 

•and stiff soils: In those which are dry and gravelly, or 

sandy, it does not prevail. It is extremely injurious in all 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 415 

tillage. In lands, hpwever, which have been closely pastur- 
ed for a number ol succe^jsive years, it will neuiiy disap- 
pear; and in nnowing lands, its growth will be constantly 
retarded, and lessened, where the grasses grow luxuriantly, 
particularly those before mentioned. It is, however, but 
little injui^ious in hay, as cattle eat it freely ; and they are 
particularly fond of it, when it has wilted, after being newly 
mown. In soiling of cattle, it would, therefore, be of no 
essential injury; while it would gradually give place to the 
tall and luxuriant growth of grasses, used tor that purpose. 
«S<?e^ Soiling 

Pasturing, crfluvating tall grasses, and keeping the lands 
highly manured, will probably, in general, be found the 
most effectual methods of geting rid of this thistle, unless 
the culture of potatoes, before mentioned, should be found 
sufficient to destroy it. On dry loams, however, or those 
laid dry by hollow drains, or on some dry marly soils, the 
yearly culture of hemp might, in many instances, be prolil- 
ably used in subduing this troublesome weed. 

By a communication of Mr. De Witt to the ' Society for 
the Promotion ^>f the useful Arts,* in this State, it appears 
that covering this weed, to the depth of five or six inches, 
with straw, will completely extirpate it. In the trials which 
were made, for^Hhis purpose, the straw was laid on when 
the thistles had grown to the height of six inches, and was 
left upon them for a twelvemonth. 

' It is of the utmost importance (says Mr. De Witt) in 
the newly cultivHted parts of our Country, to attend to the 
early destruction of this troublesome weed. It generally 
appears first in small spots, and if not extirpated will ra- 
pidly spread, by means of its almost indestructible roots, 
even should it be prevented, by timely excision, from send- 
ing if^s winged ^||ds abroad, till it covers ii Jds to an extent 
which will discOTTage attempts to destroy it. I have seen 
several spots, far remote from where it prevails, that were 
at first but a few feet in extent, and which have annually 
increased, till they have become of a formidable size.' 

It may be further observed, of this weed, as of all others, 
that constantly pulling it up, as often as it appears above 
ground, will subdue it. The leaves of plants, in particular, 
are analagous to the lungs of Inimals. It is principally through 
the leaves that hydrogene is absorbed, and oxygene is emiied. 
See Air. 

Any plant, therefore, when long divested of its leaves, 
or of its staik. if it bear no leaves, must eventually perish. 
The roots alone cannot long exist. All, therefore, thait is 
necessary for extirpating any v/eed, is to keep all that 
grows above ground constantly cut or pulled off; aR^ the 
more frequently this is repeated, the sooner will the roots 



41 i FARIVfER's ASSISTANT. ^ 

loose all further vegetative power. The roots of this thistle 
are (Ufficuli to subdue in this way; but perseverance will 
ultimately accomplish their destruction. It is almost use- 
less to add, that he who operates upon this v/eed, must 
provide himself with a thick pair of leather gloves for. the 
purpose. 

The common thistle (carduus) is easily destroyed by 
mowing it when in blossom, or by pulling or diging it up in 
the Sprini?. ' 

The ycllowiveed (ranunculus) prevails mostly in vvetish 
meadows, where it roots out most of the grass. li is, how- 
ever, highly relished by cattle in fodder; thcwgh its product 
Will be found small, compared with that of the grasses 
which before filled its place. When eaten green, it is hot 
and acrid, and cattle do^not much relish it. 

Hollow draining wet lands, and manuring, and cultivating 
them with tall grasses, or in some of the methods before 
mentioned, which may be most suitable to the soil, will 
quickly extirpate this weed. 

The ^uhite-iveedy Mayweed^ or oxcye (chrysanthemum) 
roois out the grasses in pastures and mowing lands, where 
the ground is not very strong; but where it is well enriched 
with suitable manures, it gives way to the grasses in turn. 
It never makes its appearance in a very strong tough sward. 
Cattle wiU eat it in hay, if it be cui green, and well made ; 
but they dislike it in pastures ; and at btst, its product is 
but small. 

To extirpate this weed, manure the land strongly, and 
cuUivate it yearly with carrot's, hemp, or tall grasses, as 
may be most suitable to the soil, Common hoed crops, 
when' yearly repeated, will also subdue it. But where it 
grows in moist meadow?, which are not intended to be hol- 
low-drained, the best means of destroying it are freqtient 
top dressings of composts suitable to the so#^(5ee Manures) 
or pulling it up by hand, which should be done when it is 
in blossom. 

The daisy prevails mostly in upland-pastures; and some- 
timts, where the soil is not strong, it chokes the crops of 
wheat, flix, Sec. It may be destroyed by yearly hoed crops, 
by hemp, full grasses. Sec. 

The wild Giiion (allium canad^se) prevails most in Penn- 
sylvania, where it was brought by the Swedes, and used for 
pasture It is very injiuious in crops of wheat, and by no 
means inoffensive in ttiose of rye. It is also bad food for 
Milch-cows, as it imparts its taste to their milk, butter, and 
cheese, Yearly hoed crops, hcnip, and tall grasses will 
gradually subdue it. Frequent plcughings and harrowings, 
*wnen \)fi& ground is dry, is also beneficial. Let the Irish 
meihocl of planting potatoes be also tried. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 417 

The method commonly used in Pennsylvania, for tliinin^ 
this weed, is one or two hoed crops, and then oats sowed 
thickly. Long pasturing or mowing the ground, will lend 
gradually to exiirpate it; especially if the growth of the 
grass be luxuriant. 

A Wriier in a Paper, published at Raleigh, North- 
carolina, says, that late in August he turned under a sward, 
to the depth of about four inches, which was much infested 
with wild-onions; that, in the Fall following, he sowed and 
harrowed in wheat on the ground, without any further 
ploughincr ; and that the crop was entirely clear of these 
weeds. In this case, it would seem, that turning under 
the roots of the onions to this dep'h, and leaving them thus 
inverted, is sufficient to destroy their vegetative powers; 
and, if so, the turning under of a clover-sward, to form a 
lay for wheat, would seem to be admirably calculated for 
extirpating their growth. 

See Clover and Trench ploughing. 

The growtti of weeds wnich are cosumonly called cockle 
and steencrite^ is often injuriou-i to crops of wheat and rye. 
The seeds of these weeds are usually carried into the fi ids 
in the barn-dung, in its crude state. Dung, therefore, which 
contains these should not be applted to the summer-fallow^ 
but carted out in the Spring and used for hoed crops ; in 
this way, the seeds will vegetate in the Fdll, and then the 
young growth is effectually killed by ploughing for the next 
Spring-crops. 

Johnsivort ( Hyperirum. ) grows on such dry soils as are 
suitable to the application of gypsum | and this manure, or 
any other which is suitable to the soil, when pretty plen- 
tifully applied, and the land laid down with clover, or other 
suitable grass, will quickly eradicate every vestige of this 
weed, -« 

Burdock (Arctium) and some similar weeds, should be 
cut, or dug up, while green. 

Quitchgrass (Lolium) is considerably injurious to the 
growth of almost every plant. It prevails most in the stiffer 
soils. It starts afresh, wherever its large strong roots are 
cut with the plough or hoe; particularly when the soil is 
rather moist. When it is quite dry, the roots may be drag- 
ed to the surface by frequent harrowings, where they will 
perish j and this, together with long pasturing, or mowing 
the ground, is perhaps the only practicable method of getsn^ 
rid of this grass. It should, however, be observed, that this 
is a tolerably good grass for either pasturing or mowing; 
especially when other grasses are mixed with it. 

The seeds of this grass have some resemblance to ^gains 
©E blasted rye. Grain designed for sowing may be mostly 
cleared of the seeds of itj by swimiug the grain in water. 

53 



418 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

A species of this grass is cultivated in England, and is 
commoi ly called Darnel or Baygrass, and is much approv- 
ed of to sow with red-clover ; but probably this is the grass 
with broad striped leaves, which we have commonly heard 
called Ribbongrass. 
See Grasses, 

Charlock (Sinafiis) is also a troublesome weed. Some- 
times it is. called wiid-mustard. Mortimer mentions a field 
of barley, which, by mowing when this weed was in blossom, 
gave the barley a chance to g-t above the weeds, as the 
mowing oi ly took off the tops of the blades of the barley 
without injuring the crop. He supposes Cow-dung more 
favorable for increasing the growth of this weed, than any 
other manure; and recommends feeding Sheep on fallows 
infested with this weed, as they are very fond of it. The 
seeds will live many years in the earth, and afterwards 
vegetate, when it is cultivated. 

Mr. Deane says * grain should be sown thick, where 
there is danger of its being injured by Charlock, so that 
the crop may *overrop the weeds. Barley sown thick will 
certainly prosper in such situation.' 

Fallowing the land in an effectual manner, by repeated 
ploughings and harrowings, is perhaps the best method to 
extirpate this weed ; for, as soon as the seeds are brought 
up near the surface, they will vegetate ; and then the next 
ploughing, or harrowing, will destroy the young plants. 

Sheep are much better than any other cattle for destroy- 
ing weeds, by pasturing. 

As all weeds are propagated by their seeds, none should 
be suffered to go to seed. This remark is no less applica- 
ble to the weeds before enumerated, than to the numerous 
class of biennials which commonly infest the fields. All 
weeds, by being suffered to grow, exhaust the soil. The 
ground, therefore, which is kept clear of weeds, will much 
easier retain its fertility, than that which is suffered to be- 
come full of their seeds. Generally speaking, any given 
quantity of weeds growing with a crop lessens its product, 
in proportion to the weight of the green weeds with that of 
the growing crop. Farmers should therefore be extremely 
careful in keeping all weeds out of their grounds, and in 
destroying the common biennials as fast as they appear, while 
the ground is bearing crops: And, in regard to those per- 
ennials, before enumerated, and all others which may infest 
the lands, the prevention of their growth is generally much 
easier than their extermination, after they have got footing 
in the soil. When, therefore, the Farmer sees new weeds 
start lAp in his land, let him immediately extirpate them, 
cithefr by frequently mowing them off closely, by taking 
them out of the ground, or by smothering them with 9), 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 419 

sufficient quantity of earth, straw, chip-dung, or other rub- 
bish; and thus he will find that a pennyworth of trouble, 
spent in the prevention of the disease, is worth a pound 
spent in the cure. 

For destroying the common biennial weeds, see FallowT* 
ING OF Land 

WEEVIL. See Insects. 

WELL. See Water and Pasture. 

WHEAT (Triticum ) Under different articles of this 

Woik, to wit: l^HANGE OF ' R >PS CHANGE OF SeEDS, 

Drill, FALLtnviNG, Green-dressing, Gypsum IIe&sian- 
FLY Harrowing Hauvesiing, »uildew, "foiling Sow- 
ing, bMUT 1 HRESHiNG, aiiU VV A TER-FURROwiNG, consider- 
able hds been oaid wincn regards tne culture ot wheat, and 
need not here be repeated. 

There are several species of this grain ^ such as, the 
Spring- wheaf, and the different kinds ot Winter- wheat; the 
bald^ the bearded^ the cone^ the Polish, and the Smyrna 
nvheat^ Sec. The iuiier has a central ear, >j\iLh several smaller 
lateral ones, which spring Irom the lower end of the large 
one= It requires a rich soil, and it is probable that, m this 
Country, tiic horse- hoeing husbandry of Mr. Tull {see New 
HoRSE'HOEiNG HUSBANDRY) wouid be morc suitable for it 
than tor any other kind. 

Winter- wheat, in this State, an-d in some more southerly, 
will grow on almost every dry soil that is sufficiently rich. 
Very sandy and very gravelly soils are, howevtr, the most 
unsuitable. Dry red loams, with a trifle of clay in them^ 
are perhaps the best. Of the old States, the best wheat, 
and the greatest Cfops, are raised in what sjare called the 
Middle States, mx. Gregg^ of Pennsylvania, lately raised 
sixteen hundred bushels liom forty acres, and crops still 
larger have been raised in Virginia. In this State, the 
greatest products are not quite so large ; and the Eastern 
States are still less favorable tor the growth of this grain. 

The time for sowing wheat probably depends much on 
previous habit. Thus, it it were sown a number of succes- 
sive years by the middle of August, and thei;^ the time of 
sowing were changed, at once, to October, the crop would 
probably be much lighrer on that accouni; yet, where wheat 
has become habituated to be sown late, it will do tolerably 
well. The later it is sown, however, the more seed is re- 
quisite. When early sown, a bushel to the acre is believed 
to be sufficient; but, when sown later, a bushel and an^alf, 
or more, may be necessary. I.i England, they sow a much 
larger quantity than this; but it is probably an useless 



420 FARMER'S ASSISTANT, 

expenditure of seed. L^^t the Farmer, however, try expev' 
imentb in this way, by mowing, iwo, three, or tour bushtls to 
tbe acre; and iJ well repaid, by a suitable increase of his 
crops, let him persevere in sowing tbat quantity of seed 
which he fii»ds most advantageous. 

Drilling in wheat wUl save as much as one-third of the 
seed. It wheat is found to grow larger in this way, than 
when sown in the broad cast, the gain may be much greater. 
If it be soaked twenty-tour hours in lie and brine, or old 
lurine, with a proper mixture ot s. Itpetre, its smutiness will 
be preveniedv which in many instances may be a great sav? 
ing; while the rrop Will be greatly augmented. 
See Sowing 
Thus, by payii.g attention to these particulars, and some 
others, the clear profiis ot a crop of wheat may perhaps be 
doubled. 

Seed wheat should always be run throupfh a screen, be- 
fore it is sown, to take out the seeds of cockle, drips, and 
other weeds which inlest the crop. Care should also be 
taken, not to let the seed get any mixture of rye in it; as 
the cuting of this out requires considerable labor, and at 
the same time lessens the crop. The E.iglish Farmers say, 
that seed should never be taken ot whe^t which has grown 
on sandy land j but from that which has grown on soils 
most natural to it. The changing of seed should also be 
attended to, as this grain is found to degenerate. The 
Summer-wheat which is brought from Canada is found to 
produce much larger crops in this county (Herkimer) thaa 
that which has been sown here for some time. Wheat that 
is carried to a climate much more northerly, than that in 
which it has been long sown, will not answer well, as it 
will be too late in ripening. 

The best preparations for a crop of w^eat are Summer- 
fallowing, or a clover sward turned under, and the wheat 
sown on it. The latter is good culture. The former ought 
never to constitute a part of a good system of farming, on 
account of its additional expense, unless it be to recruit ex- 
hausted lands, or to destroy weeds. But, where lands re- 
quire to be fallowed, let the work be done tfft:^ctually, by 
repeated ploughings and harrowings, in order that the 
ground be enriched, and the seeds of weeds destroyed. 
Beside clover, the Summer-crops, which are found best to 
precede a crop of wheat, are turnips, peas, vetches, and 
barley will do tolerably well ; but let the ground be plough- 
ed up immediately after the crop is taken otF. A poiatoe- 
crop is also very good ; provided it be got off the ground 
suffifeientiy early for sowing the wheat. Indian corn, where 
the ground is in good heart, will do well, by cuting up the 
crop while green, and seting it up in shocks to ripen. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 421 

Where wheat has lodged so as to fdll fiat on the ground, 
the better way is to harvest it immediately, it the grain be 
only in the milk ; lor in that siiuaiion it will derive no lur- 
ther benefii irom the earth, or troni the air; whereas, if it 
be cuij and laid to dry, the seeds will derive nourishment 
from the stalk ; and, though they be small, they will be as 
large as they would otherwise have been, perhaps larger, 
and at the same iime<'%ill make much better fluur. The 
treatment in this case ought to be the same as in case of 
mildew. 

See Mildew. 

It is believed, there is nothing gained by leting wheat 
stand till it is tully ripe ; that is, till the heads turn down, 
before it is harvested. If it stand so long, considerable will 
be shelled out before it is got into the barn ; and even if the 
bulk should in this case be j^reater, slill the weight may not 
be increased; and as wheat is now sold by weight, not by 
the bushel J and as it is known that the best flour is made 
from the earliest harvested wheat ; the Farmer, from these 
considerations, may probably be the gainer by commencing 
his harvest considerably earlier than the usual time. lu this 
way, too, he will be less in danger of having his wheat 
grown by long continued ruins; lor it is found, that wheat 
which is harvested early is less liable to grow, than that 
which is cut late. Thaf, however, which is designed for 
seed, ought to be harvested last, as it will vegetate more 
readily when late harvested. » 

As a matter of curiosity, it may be observed, that by fre- 
quently sphting the plants ot wheat, and seting each part by 
itself, they may be greatly multiplied. Thus, by sowing the 
wheat in August you may split it, after it has branched out 
into a number of parts, and this may be again repeated in 
September, and repeated once or twice aguin in the Springv 
until in this way you may make one seed produce more 
than half a bushel of grain. 

Where wheat is likely to grow too large, the best way is 
to feed it down in the Spring, lor such length of time as 
may be thought requisite; and in this way it will grow up 
with a stronger stalk, be less liable to lodge, and produce 
a great crop. 

See Rye, for a very extraordinary crop that was raised 
in this way. 

If the wheat cannot be conveniently fed off, let it be 
mowed off close, as olten as may be found necessary, which 
will answer nearly the same purpose. 

In England, experiments have been made of transplanting 
wheat in the Spring, by means of which the crops proved 
very good, and a great deal of seed was saved. 1 nis mii^hc 
be> found peculiarly useful in wet lands, thrown up in ridges 



422 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

in the Spring. The expense of such culture would, proba- 
bly, however, be too great in this Country; and therefore 
need not be minutely described. 

Barberry-bushes or cherrytrees, planted in wheaifieldSi 
will make the wheat growing near them blast. 

Spring-wheat should be sown as early as the ground can 
be made mellow ; and there is little or no danger of its be- 
ing too rich for this crop. It grows%est on rich new lands, 
or on lands which have been well manured and bore Indian 
corn, or potatoes, the precedmg year. The quality of this 
wheat is inferior to that of Wmter-wheat, and the crop is 
usually smaller. It is, however, cultivated with more suc- 
cess than Winter-wheat, in much of the higher lands where 
the snow falls deep in the northerly parts of this State. The 
requisite quantity of seed to the acre is from one and a half 
to two bushels. L'ke barley, it degenerates; and new sup- 
plies of seed from Canada, or sq^xiie more northerly climate, 
are found requisite. 

A principai difficulty in raising Winter-wheat on the high 
lands of the northerly parts of this State, where the snow 
fails very deep, is, that, it lies so long in the Spring that the 
wheat being then, trontr'the warmth of the ground, inclined 
to vegetate, is prevented by reason of the snow which lies 
upon it, and, being thus excluded from the air, it dies of 
course. The most effectual remedy found, has been, to feed 
off the wheat closely in the Fall, which, it would seem, 
prevents it from starting in the Spring until the snow has 
dissolved. 

Mr. Peters finds his wheat-crops greatly assisted, by 
weiing the seed, and rolling it in gypsum, before sowing. 
This treatment makes the crop grow larger, ripen much 
earlier, and preserves it from rust or mildew. He also de- 
rives great benefit from harrowing his wheat in the Spririg, 
He thinks five pecks of seed to the acre not tpp much, when 
sown broad-cast. He verifies the old remark, that lands 
which have been long manured with barn-dung are not so 
good for wheat; that such lands are more liable to mildew; 
and that this prevails most in low grounds. He finds peas 
much better than potatoes, to precede a crop of wheat. 

Mr. Ecroyd also ipsists on the great utility of harrowing 
all Winter-crops of grain in the Spring, when the ground 
has first become suitably dried. He also says that all Win- 
ter-grain should be eaten off closely, and as suddenly as 
possible, by Sheep, Calves, &c. before harrowing; as this 
serves to help crops which appear diseased, as well as to 
prevent their lodging. He also recommends passing the 
roller over the crop, alter harrowing. 

Mr. Pkers also says that wheat should never be the first 
crop raised, after the land has been manured with lime; but 



FARMER»s ASSISTANT. 423 

that rye, or Indian corn, may be cultivated with great ad- 
vantage, immtdiately after applying this manure. 

He has made trials of the Jerusalem wheat, and finds it 
more abundant in product, and less liable to lodge. The 
bread made of it he finds lo be as well tasted as that ot any 
other wheat ; but it is considerably darker in color. 

The Spanish Spring-wheat, lately brought to this Country 
from England, is sai(f%o yield an eighth more than any 
other wheat, and appears to be of good quality. 

WHEEZING. A disease of Horsi^s, commonly called 
broken wind; caused by surfeits, violent exercise when the 
belly is fuW; by being rode into cold wa^r when very warm; 
or, from obstinate colds not cured. 

For the cure, Dr Blacken advises, that the Horse should 
have good nourishment, much grain, and littte hay ; and 
that the water given him to drink daily have a soluuon of 
half an ounce of saltpetre, and two drachms of sal ammo- 
niac. It is said that the hay made of white-weed will cure 
this disorder. 

WHEY. This liquor may be appfed to many valuable 
uses. 

^. See Vinegar, for making that liquid out of this article. 

It is good for feeding and fating Swine, and particularly 
excelent for Sows with sucking Pigs. Mr. Deane observes, 
however, that *care should be taken not to overfeed Swine 
with this liquor; for it has often happened that after dunk- 
ing plentifully of it, especially in hot weather, they will 
swell up and die.* 

The Tartars make ardent spirits, and vinegar, from the 
whey of the milk of their Mares ; and Mr. Genet says the 
Cowherds on the Alps, and in some parts of France, ex- 
tract from the whey of the milk of their Cows a salt called 
sugar of milk, * which the Swiss Doctors consider as the 
best detergent to purify the blood, and cure radically the 
most inveterate cutaneous complaints. For this purpose, 
the whey is clarified and boiled until reduced to one- fourth 
part of the whole, which is deposited in wooden or earthen 
pans in a cool place. In a short time, the saccharine parti- 
cjes are chrystalized, and the phlegmatic pdrt is then de- 
canted slowly, and the sugar is dried bn pieces of gray 
paper.* 

Mr. Genet supposes that, for curing cutaneous disor- 
ders among cattle of every kind, it would be sufficient to 
boil the whey down to sugar at once; though this, by being 
colored by the kettle, might not be so fit for pharmaceutical,^ 
purposes. Probably whey itself, when given to such cattle as 
will drink it, will auswef a similar purpose ; and this seenis 



424 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

the less to be doubted, from a case mentioned by Mr. Genet^ 
of his successful use of the milk of a Cow, in regenerating 
a decayed imported Meriim Rim ; the animal being entirely 
free from the scab, during all the time he was fed on milk; 
whtle almost all the Sheep, which came from Spain with 
him, were subject to ihat disorder. 

WILD-RICE (Avena i^amorj^ This plant which has 
commonly been called wild-rice, by the English, and Folle- 
avoine, by the French, is found in the bays, and other 
suitable places, bordering all the large Western Lakes, 
and other waters in that direction, almost as far north as 
Hudson's Bay. It has not been found farther south than 
about the thirty-ninth degree of latitude; though no doubt 
it may be cultivated in much milder climates. It grows on 
lands naturally covered with water, to the depth of from 
two to seven feet; it n quires a rich or muddy bottom, and 
■will not grow in that which is sandy. Is is believed that it 
may be cultivated to advantage in many situations where it 
does not naturally grow, and that its culture would be found 
very advantageous ; a^it grows in situations where no other 
plant of any essentia^ value is at present grown in this 
Country. We have seen it growing abundantly in a part 
of the bay of Llttellodus, on Like Ontario. Ic rises sohie 
height above the water^; and in ordor to protect it from the 
waterfowls, which feed on i', the pt-actice of the Indians 
is to go, in their canoes, amongst ii, and tie it in bunches, 
about the time the grains have formed ; in which situation 
it stands till ripe ; when they gather it, by bending the 
bunches over tha sides of the canoe, and beating out the 
grain with sticks; in which way they will soon fill a vessel 
of Ibis descripnon. When hulled, which we believe may 
be done in a manner similar to that of rice, it is said tc#be 
as nutricious as that grain, and as well tasie^. 

How far this species of the Avena may 'be successfully 
culiivated, in the manner that rice is raised in more 
southerly climates, remains yet to be ascertained by experi- 
ments. We are, however, impressed with the belief that it 
may be found a substitute for rice, and cultivated in all the 
northerly parts of this Country, where lands are naturally 
covered with water to a suitable depth, or where they can 
be thus covered in an artificial manner. 

WILLOW (Salix ) There are varieties of this tree, 
though not many that were found in this Country. The 
weeping-willow and some other kinds are imported. 
C Some kinds of this tree grow so rapidly, as to be valuable 
to plant for fuel. Th6 twigs of one kind are used for 
making baskets, Sec. Other kinds are good for making 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 425 

bedgj^es, in wet lands. Perhaps the shrubby kind, that grows 
alon^ the banks ot many ot our streanns, would be very < 
good for this purpose. 

For making the hedge, either in the bank of a ditch, or 
otherwise, stakes of a proper length are rut and set a good 
depth in the ground, about a foot apart, and tliey will take 
root and grow; while new twigs, sprouting out from every 
part, soon forms tiicm^nto a thick bushy hedge. This, 
when sufficiently grown, is to be treated as other hedges. 
Ste Hedges. 

In Greaibntijin, some of the larger Sorts of this tree are 
also raised for building^imbt r. In tins case, says Mr. Miller^ 
they are planted in rows, and stas.d six feet apart each way, 
and are triraed up ibe n qui-site height. When they become 
too thick, every other iree, in each fow, is taken away. 
They may also be planted along the bai'ks of^diichos, for 
this purpose. The sets f-re seven or eight feet long vv^hcn 
planted. The same Author observes* that every kind of 
willow is easily raised from sets jpr 'cuiings, which readily 
take root, either in the Spring, op 'Fall. 

WINDGALLS. These are %dtiBt' swellings on the 
bodies ol Horses; but most comironly they are seated on 
botbi; sides of the back sinew, above the fetlocks of this ani- 
mal j Sometimes they are in the joints and tendons.' They 
are generally iiUed with air and tl^m watery matter. Where 
they appear in the interstices of the large muscles, which 
then appear blown up like bladders, they ate principally 
filled with air, and may be safely opened and treated as a 
common wound. 

When they first appear, they are usually cured with re» 
slringents, and bandages drav/n very tighily round them; 
for j|hich purpose, let the swtiimg be bathed twice a da^ 
with vinegar, or verjuice, or fomented with a decoctiortof 
oak-barli, pomegranate, and allum, boiled in verjuice, and 
let the bandage which binds the windgall be soaktd in the 
same. 

If this should fail, the swelling may be drawn'^bflf by blis' ,1^ 
tering, and applying the blistering ointment, repeating it at 
times, till the humor is all drawn off. Some, however, cut 
open these swellings, wheiever they be situated, and treat 
them as a wound. Bur, perhaps, where they are in the 
joints, the blistering is the safer remedy, as the joints may 
be stiffened by imprudent management. |» 

WIND-MACHINERY. The saving of labor by the use 
of the winds, seems to have been but little attended to; and > 
yet it is believed that great advantages might be. derived to 
the Farmer, from this source. 

54 



426 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

Suppose, for instance, that an apartment were made under 
the roof ot the barn, at one end ; in the middle ot which 
should be properly fixed an upright shaft, extending up 
through the highest part of the roof, with four horizontal 
arms on the upper end, and on these sails fixed for turning 
the shaft when the winds should blow : Could there be any 
doubt, that this could be made to turn different kinds of 
niachines, to be used for different purposes ? 

In this way, a threshing-machine and a cornshelling- 
machine might be moved with a great saving of manual 
labor. The cuting^of straw and hay, for feeding cattle, 
could thus be almost entirely performed, and the no-less 
importaffl business of grinding different kinds of grain, for 
feeding and fating of cattle, could be performed with equal 
ease. Perhaps, also, the breaking and. cleaning of flax and 
hemp could be executed in this way, to advantage. 

The raisifig of a constant supply of water from wells, for 
supplying cattle, is also easily performed in this way ; and 
it is a matter of nb dsflicult invention so to contrive the 
machinery, that it will stop raising water when the trough 
into which, it is emn^d shaU be filled to a certain height. 
Churning may alsib^W|l> tbts performed, with a very small 
expense, when the wind will answer. 

It is but a trifling objection against all this, that the w^i^nds 
are inconstant, and that they blow unsteadily. The work 
required to be thus performed requires no great steadiness 
of operation; and days can always be chosen for performing 
most of these labors, when the winds blow most steadily. 

The machinery for some of the purposes before mention- 
ed should be so contrived as to be turned by hand, when 
the winds should not serve. It is immaterial what quarter 
the winds come from, where the ^ils are fixed on a hori- 
^htal wheel, as above intended, as the wheel will stilLtura 
the same wyy. The sails may be of very cheap matemls, 
and the cost of the whole machinery need not be^ much. 
Any minute description ot the machinery is here omited ; 
because verbal descriptions of such are necessarily prolix, 
and at best difficult to be understood; and because any one, 
wishing io test the efficacy of this method of saving labor, 
need not be long ignorant of the best means of puling his 
wishes into ex^'^uriyn. 

It is believed* that Pasmore*s machine for cuting straw is 
the best that is used in Gs carbritain. His machine for 
crushing different Jkinds of grain, between rollers, is also 
good, as being ve!7 txptditious ; but probiibly those ma- 
chines \yhich g;rind the grain, in the maimer ihat coffee is 
ground in sninM hand-mills, are the best. Descriptions and 
plaies exhibiting his machines, as well as those of Salmon*s 
and Macdougars strawcuters, may be seen in a new JBritish 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 427 

Work, which has been often mentioned in this, called * The 
Comfilete Grazier* Either of these niachi()e;|i! might be 
easily adapted to the purpose of being turned by wind. 

WINE. The presses used for making this liquor are 
similar to our screw-presses for making cider, though they 
are executed with muchineater workmanship. 

To make good wine, the grapes of the same vine should 
be gatnered at d'flpcrent times. The first should be of the 
ripest clusters ; and let them be cut.qlose to the fruit to 
avoid the taste of the stalks. The green and roten grapes 
are to be rejected. f 

In due season, the second gathering takes place, when all 
that are ripe and soind are taken as before. The same 
may be observed of f^last gathering, the grapes of which 
will be the poorest. To make wine in the greatest perfec- 
tion, however, the grapes are all striped from the stems be- 
fore they are put into the vat. yi i* . 

Wines of different colors are made from the same grape. 
The French make their white and redone from the black- 
grape. . W 

To make white-wine, grapes sufficient for a pressing are 
gathered early in a damp, misty morning, while the dew is 
on. This increases the quantity of wine, but renders it 
weak#r. Wuen the sun comes out warm, the gathering is 
discontinued. 

The grapes gathered are carefully carried in panniers, on 
Horses, to the press, into which they are immediately pur, 
and the first pre^jhing is given witi:out delay; which should 
be gentle, for fear of discoloring the liquor. The wine from 
this pressing is the most delicate, but not the strongest. 

After the first pressing, the press is raised, the scattering 
graphs are laid on the cake, and the second pressing is giv- 
en, in which more force is used than before. T'le second 
runing is but little inferior to the first, in flivor or color, 
while it is stronger and will keep longer. Sometimes the 
wines of these two pressings are mixed together. , 

After these pressings, the sides of the cake are cut down 
perpendicularly with a steel spade, so far as they exceed the 
upper part of the press that is let down on the cake. The 
eatings are laid on the top of the cake, and the third press- 
ing, which is called the first cuting, is given. The juice 
pressed out at this time is excelent. A second and tiiird 
cuting is in like manner given the cake, 'with pressings, till 
the juice ceases to run. ' ' 

The liquor of the culings becomes gradually more red, 
from the liquor contained in the skin of the grapes. The 
wines of these different cutings are collected 'Vparately, 



428 FARMER'S ASSISTANT, 

and afterwards mixed, according as they contain the quality 
thai IS want]^. 

The pressings for the whi'.e-wine should be pertormed 
quickiy, that the grapes m^iy noi have lirn%)to n^ uf, and that 
th- Uquor may i»ot remain luo long on the murk- 

In makins^ red-wincb oi the s^me. grapes, ir.cy are to b© 
gathered wh-n th»' sun shines ihe hotest They are to be 
selected and gathered lu the manner before directed. 

Whea bioughi home, as betoie, tiiey are »nasbed in a 
vat, and. are then io l*«J m the liquor ior a Ungih ol nme, 
Which must depend on the heat ot the weather, the flavor of 
the mits9l[ and tlie hetg t of color inicnded to be given. 
They aie i,o be stircd irtqaenil), the better to raise a fer- 
meotalion and reden the hquor tijp- -^ 

The Authors oi the * Mai son Rustics say, that, for the 
Coulangc ivine^ four hours is sufiicieiii for the grapes to lie 
in the iiquor; and that, tor the Burgundy iviney a wnolc day 
should be allowed. Others allow a much grt^dter length of 
time. Perhaps this point will be best ascertained by expe- 
rience, in different citmates. 

When the musi^ 6r liquor, has lain as long on the husks 
in the vats as is thought proper, It is poured off, strained, 
and put into casks. Afterwards tiie murk, or remainder of 
the grapes in the vat, is pwt into the press, and undergoes 
the pressings and cuvings before mentioned. The liquor thus 
obtained, especially it the pressing be so hard as to crack 
the seeds ot the grapes, has a stronger bodv than the first 
runing ; but has not its fine, high, delicate flavor. Some oi 
it is, however, frequently mixed with the other wines, to 
make them keep belter. 

Some pour water on the murk in the vat, after the Ucjuor 
is drawn off, which should be done without delay, lesuthe 
miirk sour, and leave it in this situation till they fin* the 
water pretty well col -red, and judge that it has incorporat- 
ed most ot the remaining strength of the murkj they then 
draw off the water and press out the murk as dry as possi- 
,, ble, and mix the iiquor thus pressed out with the water, and 
barrel it. It will keep no longer than the following Win- 
ter ; but is brisk and pleasant, while it keeps good. 

The 7mcrk is used to mend wines, whether old or new, 
which want either color or strength. They are to be turned 
out of the casks on the murk, after the 7mist has been 
drawn off, and then; Well siired up, and let stand twenty-four 
hours, if new wine^ or tvrelve hours if old When a suffi- 
cient color is thus given the wine, and it is no longer too 
sweet, but agreeable to drink, draw it off, barrel it, and put 
' the murk to the press. New and old wines are, however, 
pot io by. jiiixcd in this operation. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 42» 

The unripened grapes, that were rejected at former 
gaiherings, are to hang till ihey become a liigfi IVost-biten, 
and may then b^made into wine which will answer to mix 
with other cour^'red-wines. 

When the murk has been fully pressed, it will still yield, 
when diluted with water, termented, and distilcd, a spirit tor 
medical and domestic uses. 

In some parts of Germany, where the grape does not 
come to full maturity, the Makers of wine have stovts in 
their wine-cellars, by which they arc kept warm during the 
fermentation of their wines, and this, by heightening the 
fermentation, meliorates them, and renders them«more fine. 
Exposing the casks, to the sun will have the same efiiect, in 
wines which are toc^crid to ferment sufficiently. 

The People of .dmampaigne and Burgundy supply the 
want of fermentation, or of an insufficient one, in their late- 
made wines, by rolling the casks. Alter drawing the wines 
off from the first lees, three weeks alter being first pui up, 
Ihey roll the casks backward and forward, five or six un>es 
a day, for four or five days successively; then two or ihree 
limes a days for three or four days; then twice a day for 
four days more; then once a day for a week, and afterwards 
once in four or five days. This rolling is continutd alio- 
gether for about six weeks, where ihe grapes were pressed 
very green ; but a less time, if they were tolerably ripe. 

The finest wines will work the soonest, and the fci ment- 
ation will take ten or twtlve days, according to the kind 
of wine, and the season of the year. Those that are back- 
ward m termenting may be quickened, by puting into ihem 
a little of the forth or yeast that works from others. During 
lermentaiion, the bung-holes of the casks are to be left 
open, and should be closed when it abates, which is known 
by the froth ceasing to rise so fast as before. The t isk is 
also then to be filled to within two inches of the top. and a 
vent-hole is to be tefi open to carry off all that is thrown up 
by further fermentation. The filling of the cask should be 
regularly done every two days, for about twelve days, in^ 
order that the foulness thrown up by the continued ler- 
mentation may be thrown out at the vent-hole, or it will fall 
back into the wine and prevent its be,coming clear. After 
this the cask should be filled to within an inch of the bung, 
every fifth or sixth day, for a month ; and then once a fort- 
night, for three months longer. When the fermentation is 
entirely over, the casks are lo be filled up, and this is to be 
repeated once a month as long as they remain in the cellar, 
in order to prevent the wine growing flit and heavy. They^ 
should be filled with wine of the same kind which they con^ 
tain, which may be kept in bottles for the purpose ; and the 
vent-hole should be stoped when the fermentation is over. 



430 FARMER^s AS^IST^NT. 

The fi''st drawing off from the lees is done about the 
middle of E||&cember, and the casks containing the liquor 
drawn off' should stand without the least , disturbance, by 
shaking, until the middle of February, "i&en the liquor 
should be again drawn off into other casks. It there be 
then still so much lees as to endanger ihelr contracting a 
putrid taint, let the wine be agam drawn off in due season. 
Sometimes it may be necessary to repeat the racking sev- 
eral limes; but Kt the casks be kept lull, and let no wines 
of dissimilar qualities be mixed. 

The lees are to be collected together, and, after settling, 
the thiner«part may be distiled. 

Brandy is often added to wine, when about to be trans- 
ported, to prevent any further fermentaUpn. Fumigating the 
casks with burnt brimstone will answePl^s purpose better; 
but it is said this will destroy the red color ot wines. The 
colors of wine are, however, mostly artificial A deep- 
yelJow may be m.ide by burnt-sugar, and a deep-red, by 
redwood, eidferbernes, Sec. 

Turbid wines are fined by isinglass, by puting a pound or 
two of fresh bloody meat into them, and by other means 
pointed out under Cider. 

Where wine has become sour, let some salt of tartar be 
mixed with it, just before it is used, which will neuiralze 
the acid. 

In Summer, cool, clear days, with northerly winds, are 
the best times for drawing off wines, to^ prevent their fret- 
ing or frothing. 

For making currant -ivine^ see Currants. 

Goose berry -luine is made in the same manner as currant- 
wine. « ^ 

Raisin-wine is made as follows: Take tliirty gallons of , 
clear rain or river- water, and put it into a vessel that will 
hold a third more ; add a hundred weight of Malaga raisins 
picked from the stalks ; mix the whole A'cll together, and 
cover it over partly, but not entirely, with a linen cloth, and 
let it stand in a warm phce, if the season be not warm. It 
will soon ferment, and must be well stired about twice in 
twenty-four hours, for twelve or fourteen days. By this 
lime, if tlie liquor has lost its sweetness, and if the ferment- 
ation has nearly abated, which will be perceived by the 
the raisins lying quietly at the bottom, the liquor must be 
strained off, and the juice of the raisins pressed out, first 
by hand and afrcrwards by press, which may easily be con- 
trived, by having two boards, and weights laid on the upper- 
most. All the liquor is then to be piit into a good sound 
Svinecask, well dried and warmed, together with eight 
pound of suglir, and a little yeast; except that a little of 
the wine sho\i!d be reserved in bollles, to be afterwards 



FARMER^ ASSISTANT. 431 

added during the fermentation, which will take place again. 
During this second fermentation, the cask must be kept 
nearly full, so that the froth or yeast will run out of the 
bung- hole. ^VtfefiBthe fermentation has ceased, which will 
be at the end dRrthonth, the cask is to be stoped tight and 
kept a year, or more, and then bottled off. 

This wine will be very good at the end of a year and a 
halt; hut will improve much by being kept four or five 
years; as it will then be equal to any ot the strong cordial 
foreipfn wines, and by proper substances, to give it color 
and flavor, may be made to resemble them. 

This is the most perfect of artificial wines, but others 
may be made cheaper ; such, for instance, as supplying the 
place ot every four pounds of raisins by one pound of sugar, 
so that only a fourth 'of the quantity of raisins above men- 
tioned may be rc^quir^d ; or by adding "a proportion ot wcll- 
reciificd whiskey to the cask when closed, in which case 
less raisins and less sugar would be requisite. 

Any kind of large raisins will answer as well as Malaga; 
but the thiner the skin, and the sweeter the pulp, the better 
the wine will be. 

To make Bircfi'ivlne. After collecting the sap of the 
birch, it is to be made into wine before any fermentation 
takes place ; and for this purpose, a pint of honey or a 
pound ot sugar is to be added to every gallon of the sap, 
the whole to be well stired up, and then boiled for about an 
hour, with a few cloves and a little lemon-pee!; during 
which, the scum is carefully to be taken off. When cool, 
a few spoonsful of new <<le or yeast is to be added, tO in- 
duce a due degree of fermentation; and after this has ceas- 
ed, or nearly so, the liquor is to be bottled and put away in 
a cool place in the cell.ir, for use; though, no doubt, it be- 
comes improvt^d by age. 

When properly made, the liquor, however, becomes so 
str^g that it frequently bursts the bottles, unless they are 
placed in spring-water. Stone bottles are said to be the 
best for containing the liquor, as they are stronger than 
glass. 

The black'birch affords the greatest quantity of sap, which 
may be drawn from the tree in plentVi by boring a hole into 
the southerly side, in the manner directed ior extracting 
the sap from the maple. 
See Maple. 

The holes are to be pluged up, when no more sap is to 
be dravyn. 

Perhaps a liquor equally good might be made, in some 
similar manner, of the sap of the maple, and of the juice 
of watermelons, especially of those raised in the Southern 
States. 



432 FARMER'S A^ISTANT. 

To make Pomona-wine. The directions published by Mr. 
Coofier, for making a wine of cider and other ingredients, 
which may properly be called Pomona ivine^ are as follows: 
Take cider of the best runing of the cheese, and ot the 
best quality, and add to it as much honey''as will make the 
liquor bear an eg-jT; strain the liquor through a cloth as 
you pour it into the cask ; fill the cask full, with the addi- 
tion of two gallons of French brandy to a barrel ; set it 
away in a cool place, with the bung-hole open, to ferment; 
as the fermentation prdceeds, it will throw out considerable 
froth and filth; keep filling it frequently with more of the 
same kind of liquor, kept for the purpose, until the fer- 
mentation has nearly subsided; then put in the bung; but 
not tightly, in order that the liquor may have some turther 
vent, and, as soon as the fermentation'.ceases, close up the 
vessel. The next Spring, rack off* tfie'^liquor into a new 
clean cask ; and, in order to clarify it, Mr. Coofier directs a 
mixture of sweet milk, the whit^-js of eggs, and clean sand 
to be beat up and well stired into the cask. 

See Cider, for the particular directions for this. 

But it is believed, that about a quart of sweet milk to a 
barrel, well stired and mixed wiih the liquor as it is poured 
in, will answer equally well and perhaps better. This ope- 
ration alone will not otly clarify liquors, but, by repeating 
it several times, the highest-colored wines may be nearly 
or quite divested of all their color. After the liquor has 
been thus clarified, let it be again drawn ofT into bottles, or 
into fresh clean casks, at^d kept in a cool cellar for use. 
Mr. Coofier says that his liquor, thus prepared, has often 
been taken, by good judges of wine, tor the real juice of 
the grape ; and has been pronounced by them superior to 
most of the wines in use. Age, however, is essential in 
perfecting this kind of wine, as in all others. 

Mr. Clark^ in his ' Travels in Russia* makes mention 
of his having drank mead among the Cossacks of vhe Don, 
which was sijs^teen years old ; and this liquor, which is little 
else than honey and water, he assures us, was equal to good 
Madeira-wine. Mr. Coofier adds, that the expense of milk- 
ing Pomona- wine does not exceed twenty five or thirty 
cents a gallon. 

Wine of a tolerable quality may l^e made of the juice of 
elderberries, in a manner similar to that of making cur- 
rant-wine. 

See Currants. 

Raspberries and blackberries may also be applied to the 
same use ; and less sugar will be found requisite in making 
wines ol these than of currants. 

In making artificial wines, French brandy is used to add 
more spirit, and to assist in imparting to them the requisite 



FARMER** ASSISTANT. 433 

taste. But, as French brandy is somewhat expensive, it may 
not be amiss here lo mention, that a very pleasant spirit, 
resembling that liquor in taste, may be made of the spirit 
distiled from cider, by puting into it a suitable proportion 
of dried peaches, baked brown, but not burnt. Anout half 
a gallon of these, or perhaps less, will impart to a barrt I of 
this distiled spirit a very pleasant taste, smell and color, 
after the liquor has had time to ripen by age. Wheiher 
this liquor, thus prepared, will precisely supply the place of 
French brandy, in making ar.ifi i tl wines, is not panicularly 
known. Certain it is. however, that when it has age it has 
much of the brandy flavor, and is full as pleasant as that 
liquor. Common w>)iskey, also, when divested of its essen- 
tial oil, may in like mani*tT be turned inco a pleasant brandy, 
after it has acquired sufficient age. 

WO AD. The leaves of this plant, when reduced to a 
paste, by a proper degree of heat and fermentation, and the 
mass then sufficiently dried, is used by Ditrs, together with 
indigo, for making the best blue dies. U.tder Milkweed, 
it will be seen that the leaves of that plant have been suc- 
cessfully used as a substitute for woad, and |>i^obabiy may be 
found less difficult and expensive in cukivation. 

By a communication of Mr. Parish, of Greaibritain, who 
is himselt a Dier, and a Cultivator of woad, it seems, how- 
ever, that the cultivation of this plant has made fortunes to 
several in that Country, when grown on suitable lands; and 
that it is an excelent preparative for a crop of wheat. 

The soil, he says, which suits it best, is a fertile moist 
loam, and if underlaid with clay the better; that ground 
of this kind, which has long lain in pasture or meadow, is 
much preferable to land constantly tilled with grain, a** b • g 
more clear of weeds; that it is vain to expect a good crop 
of this plant, and of good quality, on poor shallow land; for 
that, if the crop on such land should even be abundant, as 
it may be by manuring; still such lands can never impart to 
the woad its essential qualit-y to make it valuable for dyirsg; 
and more especially if the season be wet and cold. Warm 
showery seasons, neither too dry nor too wet, are the most 
suitable for its growth. 

Mr. Pariah says he once had occasion to purchase woad 
that was grown in a very wet season, and'lourui, on using it 
an his vats, that it was impossible to regulate cheir ferment- 
ation ; thai, on experiencing this difficully, he purchased 
woad that was grown in a more genial season, and then he 
succeeded; that he kept the other three or four years, and 
then found it more steady in its fermentation; but that it 
then required double the quantity, and even with this its 
effects were not so beneficial, as when good woad was used. 

55 



434 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

Let the sward be broken in the Fall, and the ground 
ploughed and harrowed again in the Spring. The crop 
should be put in as early as the ground can be properly 
prepared. Where the sward can be completely turned over, 
this may be done as early in the Spring as possible, and the 
crop sowed or planted, as the case may be, on the sward, 
after it has first had about twenty-four bushels of lime to 
the acre, and this harrowed in. 

The seeds may be sown in the broadcast way, and the 
plants afterwards thined in hoeing, similar to the common 
method of cultivating turnips; or they may be drilled in 
rows, or planted in the quincux way; and for this latter 
purpose a board, with pegs set into it diagonally, at the 
distance of twenty inches, or twenty-four, if the soil be very 
strong, is used to make the holes for the seed, and into each 
hole three or four seeds are to be droped, and covered with 
the roller, or the harrow. 

Mr. Parish says he has been most successful in this latter 
mode of planting. Lind cannot be too rich for the crop; 
and it often fails when cultivated on land not sufficiently 
strongs or moist, or when the hoeing is not well attended to, 
and weeds are sufferud to rise. In hoeing, some earth 
should be drawn round the plants. If the season will admit 
of puting the seeds into the ground so early, as to have the 
plants strong before dry weather comes on, there will be 
almost a certainty of a good crop, where the land is of the 
right kind, sufficiently rich, and well cultivated. 

Previous to commiting the seeds to the earth, they should 
be soaked in water, with a mixture of fresh-slaked lime 
and soot, until they begin to vegetate, and break the pods 
in which each seed is enclosed. If the ground b© moist^, 
the young plants will appear in a few days. 

Mr. Parish also advises, to strew more fresh-slaked lime 
on the surface of the ground, after planting, or sowing; 
when, if showers invite^ grubs or snails to eat the young 
plants, this manure will destroy these insects. But perhaps 
this may as well be omited, until it be seen whether the 
young plants become infested with these enemies ; and, on 
their first sippearance, strew on the lime, as before mention- 
ed, and this will soon destroy them. 

He also says, that he once cultivated this crop^ for three 
years successively on the same ground; but found this to be 
an error ; for, after the plants came up strong and healthy, 
they were soon observed to decay and wither; and on exam- 
ining the roots he found them attacked by the wireworm. 
He, ^however, destroyed these by applying forty- eight bush- 
C els of fresh-si ked lime to the acre, and harrowing it in, 
which gave him a good crop. 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 4S5 

He advises, therefore, never to cultivate more than two 
crops successively on tlie same ground, from an opinion that 
the want of a cnange m this crop, and some others, is the 
cause of their becoming more liable to the depredations of 
insects. Be this as it may, we have no doubt but that a 
proper solution of salt and water, applied to tne roots of the 
plants, would have destroyed the wueworm as efliectually as 
the applicaiion of the lime. 
See Insects 

The leaves oi ihis plant, when grown on good land, and 
in a good season, grow very large und long; and when thny 
should be gathered, a brownish spot, inclining to a purple 
towards its centre, appears near the ends; while the other 
parts ot the leaves still appear green, but a little tinged 
with yellow. 

The leaves are to be gathered from two to four, and even 
five, times in a season, as Mr Parish once experienced; 
and tor the next Spring he saved an acre for seed, ot which 
he had a good crop. H^ also picked off the young seedling 
sprouts from what he had thus saved tor seed, and mix- 
ed them with his first gathering of what was newly sown, 
which he found to answer very well. But at another lime, 
when he let these sprouts grow too long, they became too 
hard, and were of little value. 

When a second crop is to be taken from the ground, it 
should be ploughed up in ridges in the Fall, after the last 
gathering of the leaves; but, where Wheat is to follow, the 
ploughing for that crop rtiust be sufficiently early for sow- 
ing it in season. 

After describing tl^ common method of preparing woad, 
he proceeds to describe the process he pursues for this 
purpose, which he says is beyond comparison the best, and 
jfis as follows: 

After gathering the leaves, they are to be put to dry, and 
to be turned so often as to prevent their heating so much 
as to be reduced to a paste. In wet weather, a stove is to 
be used for this purpose. When a quantity is sufficiently 
dried, which in England requires about a week (but less 
time vtould probably answer here) it is to be thrown into a 
heap, where, if not too dry, it will begin to heat and ferment; 
if too wet, it will rot, but not properly ferment, n6r readily 
become in a condition for the Dier. 

If the heap is too dry for fermenting, it is to be moistened 
with limewater, applied by a wateringpot. When the heat 
increases too rapidly, the heap must be turned, and very 
fine flour-lime strewed between different layers. That 
which requires most lime to preserve a temperate degree 
of fermentation, and takes most time in fermenting, is the 



436 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

best, * so that at lengih it comes to that [.eat which is indis- 
pensable to the producuon of good woad.* 

Whtn the leaves bt gn to be reduced to a paste, the 
surtace of the heap must be kept as smootb as passible, 
and tree irom crai.ks ; as this prevents the escape ot much 
carbonic acid gas, vvnich is furnished by the hnje, as well 
as by .he iermeniaaon ; 'and it also preserves it irom the 
fly, magors, and worms, wnich olun are seen in those parts 
v/here the heat is not so great, or the lime is not in suffi- 
cient qu uituy to destroy them. It is surprising to observe 
what a degree of heat they will bear. This alteniion to 
rendering the surface ot the couch (the heap) even and 
compaci, IS essentially necessary, and to turning the woad 
as a dung exactly, digiqg perpeiidicularly to the botiom. 
The couching-house (where ihe heap is made) should have 
an even floor ot stone or brick, and the walls snould be the 
same, and every part ot the couch of woad should be beaten 
with a shovel, and trodcn, to render it as compact as 
possible/ 

« The Grower of woad should erect a long shed in the 
centre of his land, facing the south, the ground lying on a 
descent, so as to admit the sun to the back part ; and here 
the woad should be put down as gathered, and spread thin 
at one end, keeping Children to turn it towards the other 
end,' and * the couch should be at the other end* 

Mr. Parish supposes the degree of heat, * necessary to 
produce that change of smell which is necessary to finish a 
couch ot woad properly tor the Dier, to be about from one 
hundred to one hundred and twenty degrees ot Fahrenheit, 
and that it cannot be regularly obtained but by temperance 
and time.' ' 

»Good woad, such as the richest land produces, will be of ^ 
a blackish green and mouldy; and, when small lumps areF 
pulled asunder, the fractures and fibres are brown ; and 
these fibres will draw apart like small threads; and the 
more stringy they are, and the darker the external appear- 
ance, and if of a green hue, the better the woad; but poor 
land produces it of a light brownish green. Tsie fibres only 
serve to show that it has not suffered by putrefaction.' 

When the couch or heap of woad ^ has attained its due 
degree of fermentation, it is to be opened, spread, and turn- 
ed, until regularly cooled; ajid then it is in condition for 
sale : But the immediate use of wood new from the couch 
is not advised by Diers who are experienced; for new wood 
is not so regular in its fernt^entation in the blue-vat,' 

We have thus given the substance of the communica- 

*tion of Mr. Parish, partly in his own words, and partly in 

our own, where we supposed we could be more explicit and 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 43r 

concise. What has been said will, as we believe, enable any 
one sucessfuUy to raise this plant, and prepare it ior the 
Dier; especially with the aid ot a little experience in the 
,-^uUure and process of preparation. 

WOLVES. For the method of preventing their killing 
Sheep, see Sheep. 

Wolves are easily caught in traps, and, as many froniier 
towns are in the habit of offering consideruble premiums 
for every Wolf that may be killed, we will suggest a me- 
thod of destroying them, which it is believed would be 
successiul. 

Build a close board-pen out in the wilderness, where the 
Wolves most frequent, so high that they cannot gn ever it; 
let it be about twenty feet square; leave a hole in each side 
of it just large enough for a Wolt to thrust his htud kuo; 
put three or four -3heep into the pen and feed them ih^re; 
Take pieces of tainted mtat and drag them alor.g on the 
ground, off for miles, in different directiojis from ihe pen. 
The Wolves coming across the scents made by ihcbe trails ' 
will follow them to the pen, and when there they miU 
stick their heads through the holes to get at the Sleep. 
Let the Sheep be prevented from coming too close to these 
holes. 

All then that is further to be done is to conrrive traps, 
which, as they run their heads througn the holes, will 
either kill them, hang them, or otherwise fiold them last 
till tney can be killed or taken; and the dsff. icnt methods 
ot doing this, any Hunter of common ingenuity can easily 
contrive for himself. 

This plan would be equally useful where the Farmer folds 
his Sheep every night, to keep off the Wolves. 

WOODHOUSE. Every Farmer should provide himself 
with this building; and into this let him every Winter store 
away wood sufficient for the ensuing year, so that he may 
have a constant supply of dry fuel. Any kind ot wood, even 
that which is much decayed, will burn well when dry ; and 
half of any given quantity of dry wood will give more heat 
than the whole where it is wet and green; so that there is a 
considerable saving of wood in having it dry, to say nothing 
of the greater pleasure and convenience it affords. 

A house twenty feet square and ten feet high will hold 
fifty cords of wood ; but if the Farmer will be at the pains 
to have his rooms warmed, and his culinary business per- 
formed, in tlie most approved and economical manner, he 
will find the one-half of this yearly quantity ot wood suffi^ 
cient for all his purposes ; and thus make a saving in this 



438 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

article alone to the amount of at least thirty dollars a year, 
and, where fuel is dear, to pt'rhaps double that amount. 
See Warming of Rooms. 
In cuiing wood bnort, alter it is carted home, a saw should|^ 
be used; as this makes a great saving of the wood, and is 
at the same time equally expeditious. 

WOUNDS. Mr. Bartlet directs, where Horses or other 
cattle receive any large wound, the first step is to sow it 
up, if it be in such part of the body as will admit of this; 
for in some parts the wound will be drawn open by the 
lying down, or rising, of the animal. Where the wound is 
deep, let the stitches be proportionately deep, so as to bring 
the lower parts of it together. The stitches may be halt an 
inch or more apart. 

If an artery has been opened, let it be secured by pass- 
ing a crooked needle underneath and tying it up. If this 
cannot be done, apply a button of lint or tow, diped in a 
strong solution of biue vitriol, close to the mouth of the 
bleeding vessel, and be careful that it be kept there, by a 
proper compress and bandage, till an eschar is formed. 

The lips of the wound being brought together by the 
needle or bandage, it needs only to be covered with rags 
dipcd in brandy. Where the blood of the animal is, how- 
ever, \x\ a bad slate, which may soon be known by the aspect 
of the wound, and its not healing, the biood should be rec- 
tified by internal medicines. The wounded purl should be 
kept as free from motion as possible. 

All wounds of the joints, tendons, and membraneous 
parts should be dressed with terebinthine medicines, to 
which may be added honey, and the tincture of myrrh. All 
greasy applications should be avoided. Fomentations and 
poultices are also of great use here. 



YEAST. For the best yeast, see Beer. 

A method of milking what may be called a portable oi* 
durable yeast, is as foilows : 

Take a quantity of hops, suitable to the quantity of yeast 
you intend to make, boil them well, and strain off the water 
fii which they are boiled; into this water stir* a suitable 
quantity of Hour, and considerable salt, and then ad(ito this 



FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 439 

a proportionate quantity of good yeast ; let this mass rise 
as much as it will ; then stir in fine Indian meal till it is so 
thick as that it can be made into small cakes of the size 
of a dollar or larger. When the cakes are thus made, dry 
ithem in the sun till they are hard, minding to turn them 
frequently to prevent their moulding, and then lay them by 
in a dry place, for future use. 

When you wish to have yeast, take one of these cakes, 
crumble it to pieces, pour warm water on it, and let it 
stand in a warm place, and it will soon rise sufficiently to 
make good yeast. A quantity of these cakes may be thus 
made at once, which will last for six months or more. 

YELLOWS. In Neat-cattle this disease is usually called 
the overflowing of the gall; in Horsts, it is called the yel- 
lows or jaundice. 

See Neat cattle- 

When Horses are troubled with this disorder, it is known 
by the yellowness of the eyes and of the inside of the mouth. 
The animal becomes dull and refuses to eat. The fever 
and the yellowness increase together. His urine is voided 
with difficulty, and looks red after it has lain some time. 
The ofif-side of the belly is sometimes hard and distended. 
If the disorder be not checked, he becomes frantic. 

In old Horses, when the liver has been long diseased, the 
cure is hardly practicable, and ends fatally with a wasting 
diarrhoea; but, says Mr. Bartlet^ when the disease is re- 
cent, and the Horse young, there is no danger, if the fol- 
lowing directions are observed : 

First, bleed plentifully and give the laxative clyster, as 
Horses having this disorder are usually costive; and the 
next day give him a purge of an ounce and a half of cream 
of tartar, half an ounce of Castile-soap, and ten drachms of 
succotrine aloes. Repeat this two or three times, giving 
intermediately the following balls and drink : Take Etbiop's 
mineral, half an ounce; millepedes, the same quantity; 
Castile-soap, one ounce ; make this into a ball, and give 
one every day, and wash it down with a pint of this do- 
coction : Take madder-root and turmerick, of each four 
ounces; burdock-root, sliced, half a pound; Monk's rhu- 
barb, four ounces; boil the whole in a gallon of forge-water 
down to three quarts; strain it off and sweeten it with 
honey. 

Balls of Castile-soap and turmerick may also be given for 
this purpose, three or four ounces a day, and will in most 
cases succeed in effecting a, cure. 

By these means, the disorder generally abates in a week, 
which may be seeiija the alteration of the Horse's eyes and * 



^« 



440 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 

mouth ; but the medicines must be continued till the yel- 
lowness is removed. Should the disorder prove obstinate, 
you must try more potent medicines, viz. Mercurial physic, 
repealed two or three times, at proper intervals, and then 
the following balls : Take salt of tartar, two ounces ; cinna*^ 
bar of antimony, four ounces; live millepedes and filings 
of steel, of each, four ounces; Castile-soap, half a pound; 
make these into balls of the size of hen's eggs, and give 
one of them night and morning with a pint of the above 
drink. On the recovery of the Horse, give him two or 
three mild purges, and if he be full and fut put in a 
rowel. 






APPENDIX, 



[The following articles were not receiverl in time \o be inserted in 
their proper ^places iiv this Work; the}' are therefore added a« 
an Appendix.] 

APPLES. Mr. P;Ti'/072, of Pennsylvania, says tliat apples, kept 
over Winter, ai-e most inclined to rpl diuiiig' the time thgit apple- 
trees are in blossom. Hd directs that, when the frost is, over, tl\ey, 
should be spread on a floor for some time, and that those inclining" 
to i"ot should then be taken out. 'Afier tlfis, he sa} s, tliey will 
shrivel somewhat; but that those, of a i^ood kind to keep, may 
be kept>ound till the nest crop of apples ripens. 

BREAD. I}r. Dat-nvin asserts, that the starch ,w-hicl> may be ex- 
tracted from any g-iven raiinbev of pounds of raw potatoes,' added to 
as many pounds of th.ls root when boiled, will r.iake bread equal to 
that made' froin the best wheat flotu". The boiled potatoes are to be * 
mashed line, with tiie starclij in^ its wet state, added to them, and 
tlien to be ji^ade ia the manner of wheaten bread. Kw equdl' num- 
ber of ])oiii-»ds of wheat fioupj, and of boiled potatoes, wei| mashed, 
will also ;ttake gyod bread. Ok,' instead of potatoes, iboiled turnips, 
Avell mashed, and the juice mostly squeezed out, will answer very 
well; but in such c-ise the byead is t6 be kej5* about tv\enty-four 
hours, before eating, by whi<5h;,time it will lose tlie taste and smell 
of the tiwnips. They are to be peeled bef6re boiling; 'aj^d the po- 
tatoes to be skined before they are used, 

TaKe twelve ounces of rice, boil it^^tiil (j^uite soft, strain off the 
liquor (which makes the best of starch) add the rice to four' pounds 
©r wheat 'flour,*" and the whole,, when made tnta bread in the usual 
way, will weigh seven pourjds; so that this a(idition of boiled rice 
gives upwards of a poiind more ot bread, than if four pounds twelve 
ouncp^..jol;;. flour had been used for the purpose ; the bread "made 
with the^&dflition of the rice is eqirally good as that n;ade entirely of 
flour, and will t:eep moist considerably longer. It, howe^ver, Requires 
a little longer time in the process of rising .' ■ 

^heve is also a still greater addition to b^e made to the weight and 
quantity of wl> eaten bread, by bodijig thq braji, which is sejkrated 
from the flour in bolting, and kneading- tip the whole boiled mass 
with the .fl,oun Tjje bran shou-^dUe boiled about twenty mintites, 
by wjiich operatic!) its weight and its nutrimental ,qualities are 
greatjy incrtjascd; and^ when copied to lulvewiirmness Jtmay be add- 
ed to the flour ^o be made .into bread. Or the wat€r iii^ which the 
bran is boiled may jse.p^Bessed out and added to the flour; and this 
of itself will make a vn-y ■;.»;'' iM ' ''•.■.n to the woig-ht an*] 
quanUty of the bread . 



442 APPENDIX. 

Stale bread is more wholesome than that which is newly baked, as 
the latter contaiiji a larg-e proportion of indigfestible paste ; which 
mov, however, be rendered less hurtful, by toasting-. 

To make bread loith f)alt. Take as much of this article as i? ne* 
cessary for the quantity- of bread to be made ; dissolve the salt ih% 
quaiUity of warm water sufficient to mix the flour intended to be' 
baked; mix some flour in this water, and set it in a pot near the fire; 
but notso near a^o btlrn the flour: A vellow water will soon rise 
on the top, whiclrR' to be taken off', and the rising will begin ; then 
mix the contents of' the pot wi'th the floury add more warm water, if 
necessary, and in less than an hour tlie mass will be ready for baking; 
and wlun baked will be found as well raised und tasted as bread 
raised with yeast. From three to f(nir hours are requisite in this 
process, from the time of fii'st preparing the salt and water. 

BUKNET-GRASS.' Mr. Deai^e.m speaking of -this grass, sa;^s, 
< I h,a\ e had a bed of this grass for two years past on a hungry sancL 
It has grown luxuriantly, the stems rising to the lieight of three feet; 
and the seeds ripened the } ear it was sovvn, tliougli it was not sown 
till the end of May. The second year the seeds ripened, I think, in 
,iS(r June;. Tlie severity of our Winter-frost neither killed any of it, nor 
so much as altered tliie- verdure of the stetns or leaves. Some of it 
was cut up and given t'b cattle, as soon as the snow was oft", which 
they ate very greedily. 

'I thiiik tlVis-phuit bids fair to be a profitable grass in this Coutitry, 
where frost occasions the confining our stocks to dry fodder for six 
or seven months. For. oh a pasture of this grass, Cattle, Florses, and 
Sheep ma}' feed till the ground is covered with snow ; and again in 
the Spritfg, as soon as the ground is bare. It-is also excelent for soil- 
ing, oi- to give green to.cattle in racks; and when it is made into hay, 
the leaves are not apt to crumble, or any part of the hay to be wasted. 

« They who wish to propagate this grass may be assured, that there 
is not the least difiicidty in doing it; for it is not only a most hardy 
plant,. but' I have not found it to be at all liable to be hurt by any 
kind of insects. The •English Farmers recommend' keeping it clear 
of weeds during the first Summer, or till it is so large as to cover the 
ground. This' may be done partly by harrowing; for, as it is a strong 
tap-rooted plant, the teeth of the harrow will not injure the roots.* 

CABRAGE. Mr. Peters, of Pennsylvania, plants his cabbages in 
September, when he intends them for an early supply for the next 
year; and in this way' he })riugs. them earlier forward, than those 
raised in hotbeds. He drills in the seed, on ridges raised for the 
piiipose,>and lets the plants stand%xposed to the Winter.- Some of 
these are killed by the frost; but as they stand pretty thickly,^ as they 
are left in the Full, a sufnciency of them stirvive the Winter,' to be 
thined out the next Spring for growing at proper distances. 

CAMEL. There are four different species of this aniiDal, the 
J'actvkm Q'AmQ\, the Dromedary, the Lamar and the Cameleofiard. 
Tiie three former, l>aving long been domesticated, are eminently 
serviceable for carrying burdens, and for travehngvvith great speed. 
The latter has n«ver been subjected to the dominion of Man. 

•The Dactrjan is the larg,est, and can conveniently carry about half 

a ton «t a time, with which he will easily travel tKirty miles in a day. 

The Chinese Inive a '. ariety of this speci^^- which they call Fong 

-Kyo Fo, or Camels vvitli feet of the^wind ij^pne of which will carry 

> its Ridpr one hundred and fifty miles, a day;' The common kind of 



APPEND IX., 443 

this species rtiay be rode one hundred mijes in that time. It h^s two 
large protuberances on its back. . '' ^ 5|t,i' ' 

The Uromedary is smaller, has but one, atjid carries about six ' 
hundred weight. . ,^ ^ 

The^ Lamu is much smaller than either of these, and carries a 
burden proportionately less. •■>. ^^ 

The species first mentioned is considered the most serviceable. 
For the most promine?it uses, for which the» two former aie filed by, "^ 
Nature, viz. for carrying bo.rdens, and for e?:peditious traveling, they 
are by far the most'valuable an;ni<tls on earth. Without them, much 
of Asia and Africa coutji scarcely -be .in!»abited by Man. They are 
extremely docile, lying or stooping* down to receive, or to bo reliev- 
ed from, their load; they want neither wliip nor spur to urge them 
forwartl; and even when tired, music, or a sang, will give them fresh 
animation; their fett are adapted either for soft sand} or rougii rocky 
ways. They endure "hunger and thirst to a surprising, degree, and 
can subsist at all times on the coarsest fare. Their flesh is we.l tasted 
and nourishing; the females of ea h sort afford considerable supplies 
of piilk. Their hair is very valuable for manufacturing into cloihs ; 
and the.:.oil atforded from the bunches on their backs is highly 
esteemed for several jjiedical uses. i,. • 

The Camel is a native of the torrid zone; but as they are no^y used 
by the 'I'artars, who inhabit tlie Country round lake Baikal, which is 
several hundred rniles north of China, it would seein thatlhey may 
become habituated to almost arty climate. 

As twelve of the Ijactrian Cariiels would be sufficient for tran;?. 
porting six tons, and as these twelve could all be attended by one 
Driver; as they may be' kept at less than half the expense requisite 
for keeping the number, of Horses necessary for t-ansporting th« 
isame: weight; and as the transportation on Ci^niels requires no essen- 
tial expense in the construction or repair of roads, and none what- 
ever for carriages ; it would seem, from all these considerations, that 
land-carriage might be performed, by the use of these animals, for 
about one-fourth of the expense that is usually incured: . Andv if so, 
it only remains to be asked, Why has the use of Camels, for this 
purpose, been so long neglected, both in. Europe and in this Coun- 
try ? Even if only one-half of the expense of land-transportation 
qpuld thus be saved, it would prove a great source of wealth to the 
farming interest of this Country, where many articles of produce will 
not bear. the expense of carriage to market. 

CAPEU^:( Ca/i/i7is.) There are seven species of this plant; but 
the common caper; QiSfmiosaJ is mostly cultivated in the mpre 
southevly parts of Europe. It is propagated from the seeds, and the 
bud4^i^; pickled with vinegar, &,c. They excite the appetite, assist . 
dige^tJh, and are useful as detergents and aperients, in obstructions 
of the liver. ,.\ 

Mr. Jefferson., iij a letter to the Committee of Correspondence of 
the Agr'icultural Society of South-carolina, dated Paris, July, 1787, 
recommends the introduction of the caper into the Southern States. 
He observes, * The caper, thougli a tender plavit, is certain in its 
produce; because a mound of earth of the size of a cucumber-hill, 
thrown Over the plant in the Autumn, protects it ellectually against the 
cold of the Winter. When the danger of frost is over in the Spring, 
they are to be uncovered, and the culture begun. Ihere are i-j 
great deal in the i1eigHborhood<of Toulon. The plants are set about 
eight feet apart, dn^^irreld, one year with another, about two pounds 
of capers each, woftn, on the spot, about six pence «?cT/;>i^- the 



4U APPENDIX. 

pound. They require little cul|are, and this may be performed eitb^ 
with ih^ plough o%hoc. 'Die princijjul work is tlie g-utherini^ of tW 
fruit, as it forms. Kvery plant must be picked ever, other day, fiom 
the, last of June ,uniil the middle of October. But this is the wotrk 
of Women and Children. This piunt does well in an) kind of soil,' 
which is dr_v, or even in walls, where there is no soil; and they last 
the'life of a Man,* Toulon would be the tproper port to apply for 
them.' ' # ' 

Dr. i1>/f«6r says, «'!J"he .seeds must be brou.s^bt wer in their cap- 
sules, as they will keep mach bette"- tiian wuhoui tiicin-; but the;?©' 
should be secured from insects, tjy wrapinc?': tiiem in tobacco-leave.s 
which are well dried.** Without this precaution, the t;eeds vvdl be 
destroyed before they arrived' 

CARROT. The orange-colored carrot is tl^e best for cultivatio*)i., 
Mr. (^oo/zer, of Newjcrsey, raised eight hundred bushels of these to 
an acre. The crop may be mowed twice durmg; its g-rovvih ; the 
mowinjii's will somewhat assist the i^'rowih of the Toots'; and the tops 
thus taken off are much relished by cattie. 

It is contendetl by some, that the bccis for the drills of carrots 
should be underlaid with rualiure, in the mauner of turnips. 
See TuRiJrrs, ^ 

INSECTS, The g'rub is prcpagatj^d by the beetle, or black -bug-, 
which, durint^' Sumjner,.-js constantly to be seen rolling little balls 
composed of cow or horse-dung. Thes^; brills are deposited in holes 
in the ground, and contain tlie materials tor a numerous prog'eny of 
gurbs, which are brought forth the nexbSpring, and, in due season, 
are metamorphosed inio beetles." 

A .Writer, in a i^aper published at Raleigh, Nortli-carolina, 'sayi^, 
that he has never found any thing so eifectual for preventing the 
ravages of grubs in Indian corn, as Fall-ploughing; a practice \\ hich 
he parti'criiiarly recommends, as being of singular use for this pur- 
pose, as ijvell as for its excelcnt eli'ect en the growth of the crop 
which is to follow. 

[The Agricultural Society of Albany county, Newyork, having ofTer- 
ed foi'ty dollars for the best Essay on a Rptalion of Crops, and oil 
Manures, and their most profitable application, tiie premium was 
awarded to the Author oi' this Work. It was not confined to 
Residents, of the count}-, but was offered for the he^\^ Essay on 
these subjects. The Author has forv/arded it for insertion in 
the Ap})endix to this Work, from a belief that the Rotation of 
Crops, therein proposed, is the best that can be devised ; aftd also 
that, on'the Subject of tlie most profitable a/i/iikation ofraalCures, 
he" has, in this Essay, been more explicit than in the article Ma- 
Konrs, in the body of this Work.] • 

ROl ATION OF CROPS, &c. Some soils are peculiarly adapted 
for the growth of particulav plants, and in such case many successive 
yearly growths of them may be raised, without manure, and without 
• 3uaterial diminution of product. WejYave known an instance of four- 
teen good crops of wheat raised successiyeiy on the same ^ground; 
another, of eighteen crops of oats; other§, of at least ten of barley, 
•and nearly twenty of rye : IJut these were peculiar soils ; and al- 
though this sameness of ctdture was found su"cc(*ssful, no inference 
is t^jirefore to be drawn that it was the most pr^j^table, or that such 
soils would not eventually tue of thdr fuvorite' crops, an^ then be 



APPENDIX. 445 

found exhausted and unfit for others. Generally speaking, we conceive 
that one of the most-iniporVuMt points in' hubbandjjy is a judiilioiis ro- 
tation of such crops us are most profitable for culture, and at the 
same time best adapted for the particular soils which are to be culti- 
vated. Lands seenmaturally to require a ciuing-e of growths. Wlicre 
the oak has disappeared, after it had lifted its iicad to tiie Sjjilngs of 
ages, another oak will not naturally ris% but somt- other vrce. In- 
stances have been known of lands covered solelj, wi'h trees of/deci- 
duous growth, vvherejthe knots of the pitch-pine were stjll to be 
found; a'proof that pi«e vvas'once a tenant of the soil. In the South- 
ern States, where lands have been exhausted with injuilicious crop- 
ing", and then thrown out to Ql^imon, they so(fii become covered #ith 
growths of trees diHerent frorft those they originally bore. 

Soiue plaiits are so unfit for long continuance in any particular' 
pilace ths^t they are endowed with migratory powers, either by their 
winged seeds, which are' wfefted abroad by the winds f by their roots, 
by which they change thesir places of growth beneath the surface ; or 
t)y their vines,; by vwhich they travel above grouiul, and thus locate 
themselves in diflerent situations. Of the first description are the 
varieties of .the thistle, the milkweed, and the fireweed; of the 
second, the potatoe and some other: bulbous-rooted plants; of the 
third, the strawberry, the blackberH', the dilierenl species of the 
gourd-tribe. The stalks of erect plants fall when they ripen, and 
thus, the seed readies the ground at a distance Irom the roots wliich 
produced them. There seerns,A indeed, to be generally a disposition 
in the earth to require changes'in the plants it nourishes, m orcier 
that it may impart the food that is best adapted; for each; and Provi- 
dence, in his ii>linite. wisdom, has endowed these, while growing iji a 
j^tate of Nature, vvith'such properties as are best calculated to eflcct 
the changes!. Let the Cultivator, therefor^, study Nature, and follow 
her dictates, if he Mshcs either, success '"or applause in his em- 
ployment. 

In regard to changes of crops, a general rule has been rfecQpmend- 
ed of alternate growths of leguminous and culnoiferous kinQs^ and of 
green-crops and gram-crops ; but perhaps it would be quite as philo- 
sophical to insist upon aiteiiiate growths of fibrous, and taprooted 
plants; thetJFbrmer deriving,th^ir food from the surface of tJie earth, 
the latter fVom greater depths. But the value of crops,^ and' the ex- 
pense of raising each, should he duly "estirnated, iii ifiakjng selections 
^for rotations. Let-vUs say, for instance, that the average crops of 
wheat, bStley, and Indian corn,, at the greatest extent, may average 
fifty dollars in value to the acre, after ^he gram is ready for market; 
crops of rye, oats, and peas, not rnore,tlum two-thirds of this amount; 
bucj|Mdieat,^ considerably less. Fiom lands suitable for ruta-baga, or 
mai^^-wurtzei, it would seem that from five to six hundred bushel* 
to til^fcre may be expected, with good culture; which, at eighteen 
cents per bushel, a,g;Vi^e certainly not beyond the propprtionate value 
we have just given "to.; the grain-crops, will average about one hun- 
dred dollars as the value of an acre. The entire expense of either of 
these crops of roots, wlien ripady for use, is not essentially greater 
than the expense incured in producing gra!n'-(grop.s; of course, ifc 
must be evident that^these afford from thirty to fifty ddlhars an acre 
less of clear profit than a crop of either of the roots just mentioned. 
With a proper application of the requisite qitantity of manwi'e to 
ruta-baga, it may be, successfully grown on almostany dry soil, \vheij> 
well and deeply jni^p^wed, from *lie ^andy to the deep rich Ipams. 
Soils ofthe latter description are best adapted for mtirigle-whrtzel. 
-i^ither of these roots, when iteamboilcd, and especially with the ad- 



W ti 



446 APPENDIX. 

djition of some meal, will answer all the purposes for which grain lA" 
iised foi^eeding- cattle of all sorts, from the Horse dow^i to the Hog-^ 
Even stag-e-horses, wliicli, from the severity of their labor, require 
the moSt nourishing food, have been kept in England on hay and 
steamboiled ruta-bag-a. - ,, 

Mr. Cobbett says^' ' a Hog' of a good sort may be sufficiently .fat^^ 
with this root, when steaH)W)iled.' Allowing, what we believe can 
hardly be admited,' that a bushel of oats contains as much nutriment 
as thrce^t)f this root; still it is evident that the usual product of one 
acre of it will go as far m ktJeping Horses as four of oats. * Neither 
of those root-crops requires any considerable expenditure in seed;. 
ami'oH this account, if on no other, tl^y are pi-eterable to ci'ops of 
the polatoe and of the Jerusalem artichoke, which in thfe article of 
seed are perhaps the most expensive of any wh tever. We, however, 
consider crops even of these roots more profitable than those o|!~ 
grain, and fiartlcuiarly the potatoe, when judiciously cultivated 4'n 
climates most suitable for its growth. For^the various uses of Nthis- 
root, f )r culinary purposes, it stands indeed without a rival. In point 
of profit, w<^ would also give to the carrot, the parsnip, andthe onion, 
a preference to crops of grain; but the soils well adapted for them 
are more hmited, and their cultWe is more expensive ; and although 
they should ft^rm a part of the products of the farm, we cannot re- 
commend them as being in all instances proper for a judicious rota- 
tion of crops. The common turnip, and the cabbage, are also enti,- 
tled to attention. The. pumpkiit is as nutricious as the same weight 
of any root or vegetable whatever, and its culture as-clVeap.; but 
•whether its product, in weight, can be made to compete wjth that 
of roots, is a m.atter of which we are not ihfonig^d. If fifteen tons 
to the acre could be usually obtained of this Species ofi^gdurd, we 
should be induced to pronounce the crop, in point of profit an^l use, ;< 
unrivaled as a preparative for a crop^of Winler -grain. The crop- 
would be found among those whicli are le1)st expensive in seed, m 
culture,, 4nd in gathering; none would occasion less exhaustion of 
soil,, noi* require less for manure, as a little gypsum to the hills, or 
driHs,: will be fouiid to have a powerful efl'ect on its growth; but of 
its more complete cultivation we siiall presently speak. 

In Pennsylvania, and farther to the south, a successful mode of 
cuitur^e has been put in practice <)f growing Indian corn and potatoes 
in alternate rows x>r drills ; and in tiiis way aoout a sixth more of pro- 
duct, in tlie aggregate, is obtained from tlie ground, than if these two 
sorts of crops were cultivated separately. Such is found tcf be the 
fact; and the reason for it sgems to^ ^e, that each crop has, in this 
way, more space given for the exten^i^ii of its roots in search of its 
favorite foe>d, and each has the like room above c'roimd for driving 
from the aS* the nutriment tliat is most suitable. Corn, in para^lar, 
it is well known, is liable to much injury, if planted too dtds^ely. 
There is, indeed, a variety of ca&es where this mingling of growths 
is found vei">' advantageous, and whenever we shiill venture to re- 
commend the practice, it will be founded on k cojiviction of it« utili- 
ty. There are Jtlso some instances, even in this northern latitude, in 
trtvhich two crops ms^ be had in a season from the some ground, and 
any case whe're it may be advisable shall be duly noted. 

It should farther be observed, that in suggesting what may he 
deemed the most suitable changes of crops, no reference will be had 
•io the actual state of farming among us, but merely what tlie state of 
farming ought to be; and in pursuance of tliis course we shall, in a 
great%easure, discard the idea, too long prevalj^nt- iu' tliis. Country, 
that we should make the most of "our labtor, not the most of our laixi: 



APPENDIX. . ur 

We shall, on the contrary, insist that, g-enerally speaking-, making- the 
i^ost of our lands, under a proper course of husbandry, is the ,rig^ht 
^ay to realize the most from our laboi*. We shall thcrefote begin 
with the most usual soil of this Country, the. dry, arable lands; which 
are usually suited for a va"iety of crops. Of the stiff" clays, the ^ard 
gravels, and light sands, soils which abound but little here, we sliaU 
s|ieak in particular. la ploughing-, we shall advise that the usual 
depth be about six inches, "or about a third deeper ,tl)an our Farmers 
commonly plough; but that the depth shoultl sometimes be greater 
than this, and sometimes les^. We shall also insisi on the ploughing- 
being done in the,most perfect maimer, and'not in the sliglit way too 
0ften practised: and we shall farther premise, th^ the plan of cul- 

d wm\ th 



\ure "we recommend is necessarily connected with tlie busint 
the dairy, to greater or less' extent ; and with that of tlie Grazier^n 
feeding and fating cattle of every description. Such we conceiv^to ^|l 
be the only true and profitable cotirse to conduct farming in thi« 
Country; but deviatioitsfrom this may in some cases be found equal- 
ly profitable. In general, however, we advise to this course of farm- ' 

' ing; for in this way the greatest quantity of manure is-afforded ; and 
for most lahds manure is essential for obtaining the greatest crops, 
4<«nd of course for realizing the greatest profits. 

%: We shall begin witli the ground in wheat or rye-stubble, as at thcj^ 
i^ttpd of oar course we propose to leave it. Let the stubble-ground be^ 
'"#^11 turned over ni the Full, to the depth of, say, six iriches. It "^, 
should not be turned under until-a sward of white-clover has covered ^* 
tlie ground, which is- to be produced by giving it a top-dressing of , 
gypsum in the Spring. Under the s-vjbject of manures, the reasons 
for this will be explained, when treating cf g'y'psum. In the Spring, 
give the ground one or two ploughings more, as the nature of the 
^ soil may re'quire, and of the same depth, and let the last ploughing 
be jitst -before the proper time for plantiiig Indian corn? for this crop, 
with an intermixture of other plants, is v,'hat w.e propose to begziji 
, with. Say, for instance, that the intermixture shall consist of the 
potatoe, of the pumpkin, and of the common turnip, a third part 
of each. ; We propose planting these crops in drills, in preference 
to hills, fi'om a well-founded conviction that in tlie former method 
considerably more may be obtained from the ground. J.et furrows 
be run, at a good depth, for the drills, at the distance of about every 
three and a hulf feet. ^n4hese furrows- lay of the. shortest and best 
of the fresh barn-dung, .at the rate of ibofit /twenty wagon-loads to 
the acre* For the drills intended for potatoes the longer sort of 
barn-durjg is as good us any other. If tiie different sorts of barn-dung 
can be applied to the soils nnost suitable for each, as is mentioned in 
speaking of manures, tliis'should always be attended to; that is, 
sbe«p aftd horse-dung for the moister parts of tiie land, and cow- 
diti^for the drier. - 

AWast as the dung is laid, it shoidd be well covered, by a furrow, 
inoderately deep, thrown over it from each side; but, where pota- 
toes are to form the alternate drills, iQt the seed for these be laid 
on the dung, previohs to covering; and, for this purpose, let t!ie po- 
tatoes be cut in halves, lengthways, so as to give each about an equal 
number of eyes, and then wret-them and roll tlj.em in gvpsum before 
laying them down, W'hich should be at the di-stauce of about fifteen 
inches. The potatoe-driils being thus coye.red, by the, furrows 
thro\^n from each side, the same process, serves to cover the i^r-p; in 
-the other furrows, and thus the beds are fornjed for planting tl> 
other crops in th#diHll -method. Indian corn may be drilled in at 
one operation by.#:djUl-machine for the pu$os,e; the 'same may be 



443 APPENDIX. 

observed of the turnip-crop, and probably of the pumpkin; 
though attended \yith more l&bor, it may usually be expected 
they will be drilled in by mnnual operation. We^should advise 

'• the seed in the turnip-drills be liberally strewn, in order that ifpaf^ 
of the .plants be destroyed by the flies, tenoug-h may still be Icftj,, 
The corn and pumpkin-seed muy be droped at the distance c(f six 
inches, and tinned at the first hoeing, so as to have the growing: 

. plants of the fonx^;^? about a foot apart, aitl the latter about eighteen 
inches. If any vacant* places should happen in any of these drills, 
such vacancies may readily be supplied by transplanting sets, taken 
from parts where more plants are standing than are necessary. A]^ 
young plants nvdx be transplanted after they have attained a SuitsiB^ 
s^, which is nsiially in from two totfour^weeks growth. The yacan-* 
c^ may be quickly filled by transplanting, and it is a.matter well 

/ worthy of attention. _ . ' ^ . 

■ The pi-actice, lately introduced, of laying barn-dung at a good 
depth, and then coveing it with mould to the depth of about three 
or four inches, and phintmg the seeds over the manure thus covered, 
seems to answer the best purpose for every drilled-cr<^p, except po- 
tatoes; and we would therefor^ recommend this method' of using 
barn-dung in preference to e/ery other, as far as it jfi^y be wanted^ 
.. for drilled-crops. In this way this manurp may be profitably applledl 
'^ while fresh; but in many instances we consider it more efficaciotfs- 

I when applied after ^li^ process of roti'ng or fermentation^ bas corii- 
'F- mcnced. Such is the theory of Sir luiim/i/n-cy Davif, and-we h&ve 
fid' conlidence in its correctness. When thus buried in the earth, 
the grov/ing plants, placed above the manure, have the utmost means 
of absorbing all its gaseous and soluble parts, while the process of its' 
decomposition is going on. 

In preparing seeds, we would,' as a general rule, advise to their 
being soaked :ibout twelve 4»ours in a strong solution of s;dtpetre, or ■ 
of common salt, and then rolled in gypsum !)efoi'e being cdmmited 
to the earth. The effect of this, mode of/ preparing the seed seems 
to be, that the young plants start with more vigor^ "and grow larger, 
tlTan they do where this treatment of the seed is neglected^-^'.and the 
solution of saltpetre has the furth-er effi^ct of bringing plahts to ma- 
turity from, one to two weeks sooner than they otherwise wduld 
rrpc^n. 

Ih sejectlng seed for the corn-crop, take sucii s ai'rs as bear two 
ears, apd select the best ear from each qf such stu'ks, the grains on 
each ei)d;to he rejecte<l. {n all cases wliereit'is practicat^le, the: 
seeds should be taken from the largest and m-.st perfect plants, oi* 
roots, as the case may be. By attendi,ng to this mode of selecting 
seed, the product of the corn-crop in particular will soon be found 
greatly augmented; a discovery, the honor of Wliicjb is d^td to. Mr. 
Cooper, of Newjersey. It is said that sprinkling a little. gypsi^/ on 
, the silk of the ears of corn, will make them fill to the ends. Mping 

^ .*"%,. off the blossoms of tbe'pptatoe-crop, as fast a* they appear, is-fonnd, 
^ by accurate eatperiment, to* increase the growth of the roots aboutij, 

one. sixth pajrt. Salt and gy]:)suni have each a powerful effect on 
their growth, thoVigh by applying too much of the latter it ma>* ^ise 
them to run too nruch to vines. 'Fo the corn, and pumpkiiqt-criop 
apply some of this latter manure, aftet" the plants are up. What 
ciitcl it has on turnip^, we have never understood. 

"n ploughing between the drills, let it be tea good depth, first 
Hining the furrows, from the plants, runing about 4 inches from 
them, and then -turning the furrows back, whe^, the hoeing and 
hand-weeding are to follow. The second ploughing should be similar 



APPENDIX. 449 

♦ • 

to the first, but farther from the plants; and 5n g-eneral, we^believe, 
it will be found advantac^eous to ploug-li and lioe the crops the third 
time. Wc have seen it highly recommended to plough among Indi- 
an corn, as late as in August. Frequejii^t deep ploughing is certainly 
the best mean of keeping the ground maist, and should never be 
omited in case of drought. Ground that nas beconsje. quite dry will 
be found moist after a thorough deep ploughing. At all events, the 
ground sfioidd be so cultivated as to prevent any weeds from going 
to seed in the Fall; for if this be suffered the ground will remain 
constantly stocked with the seeds of weeds. 

We advise to the cultivation of the common turqip, the potatoe, 
and the pumpkin, in the manner we have mentioned, for the pur- 
pose of affording the early supply of food for feeding and fating cat- 
tle in the Fall and the forepart of Winter, before the ruta-bagacrop 
fijhould be used, of which we shall presently speak. We also advise 
to this variety of crops, in order tliat the cattle may have a greater 
variety of food ; a matter of considerable importance in feeding and 
fating cattle. For this purpose, also, the culture of the cabbage is 
worthy of attention. Horses, and all sorts of cattle, faten well on 
pumpkins; but for Swine tliey should be steamboiled, and the seeds 
taken out, as these prove injurious to those animals, by causing too 
great a secretion of urine. The seeds attbrd an oil equal to that of 
the olive, a^d are well worth preserving for this purpose. 

As soon as the ears of the corn -crop have somewhat hardened, the 
crop may be cut up and set in shocks, with the tops tied closely to- 
gether to keep out the rain, in which way the grain will harden as 
■well as in any other, ai\d a great addition of fodder may thus be 
acquired. 

During the next season, we propose to take two crops from the 
ground, to wity a crop of ruta-baga, preceded by such Spring-crop 
jis ripens sufficiently early to be hai^vested in time for preparing the 
ground for a full growth of this root. In the meridian of Newyork, 
Mr. Cobb fit says that from the 26th of July until some of the first 
days in August, is the proper time to transplant this crop, the plants 
for the purpose being previously grown. The method of cultivating 
the crop by transplanting, he insists, is the preferable way; and 
from our own experience we are fully disposed to agree with him. 
Advancing to the northward, from Newyork, the seasons are shorter, 
and of course the crop should be transplanted earlier, while at the 
same time the Spring-props are later in ripening. At Newyork, bar- 
ley could Be taken from the ground in time sufficient to prepare for 
ruta-baga: Farther to the no^^ this could not be the case. In the 
more northerly yjarts of this Sp^e, it would, perhaps, be difficidt to 
find any crop, now raised in this Country, with the exception of flax, 
that would be sufficiently early. The ^t is, we want a pai'ticular 
crop for this purpose ; and that wouJd^lfem to be the new sort of 
Spring-wheat lately introduced into France, which is there called le 
ble de mai, in English, the wheat of May. It is said to be a very 
productive species of wheat, affording a grain from which flour is 
made of about a medium whiteness between that of rye and wheat, 
and in that Country it is fit to harvest in the latter end of May. In 
this State, it would probably ripen no where later than tl>e first of 
July, which^puld be in time sufficient for the crop of ruta-baga. 

Until we^^n procure this wheat, we can only recoijimend that the 
preceding crop be such only as will ripen sufficiently earljs and, 
where none can be had for the purpose, to be content with raising 
the crop of^uta-baga ^^tly in the course of the season. W'here pre- 
vioiis Spring -crops can, however, be obtained, let them be tak«n 

57 



450 APPENDIX. 

from the ground as quick as possible, and the ground deeply turned 
over, unci mellowed by three deep ploughing-s, then furrowed at the 
distance of about thirty inches, the manure laid in, and covered by 
furrows tlirown over it from each side, and the plants of ruta-baga 
immediately set on tlie rid^s, by transplanting', at the distance of 
about a foot f''^ each <8ther. From our own experience, yve are 
fully convincf^that the plan of transplanting- is, in the end, much 
the cheapest„and most advisable. We would, however, recommend 
not to transplant before the appearance of a heavy shower, but at any 
time afterwards; that the plants be of good size, say, of five or six 
■weeks growth, and that, in seting-, special care be taken to have the 
Jow^er parts of the roots well enclosed with earth. For further par- 
ticulurs, in regard to the culture of this crop, the time and manner 
of using it, and of saving it, we refer the Reader to Mr. Cobbeti's 
book on the subject, from a conviction that it is the best essay that 
has ever been published on the culture and use of this valuable 
plant. 

It will be seen, however, that we differ from Mr. Cobbett in the 
distances in which the plants are to be set, and in the manner of 
forming the ridges. He forms his by four gathering-furrows, by 
which the ridges are each about four feet in breadth. We propose 
to form them by two gathering furrows, and at the distance of thirty 
inches. In England, the plan we recommend is geriet^Uy pursued, 
and the ridges are usually b#t twenty seven inches wit4©# 

In the Spring of the third year, we propose to sow the ground 
■with barley, after two or three plou^hiogs; seed, two and a half 
busliels to the acre. At the sanie time, also, give the groujid at least 
twelve pounds of red clover-seed to the acEe, which may be carefuly 
mixed with the barley, and sown together. HSrrow the ground be- 
fore sowing, and harrow in the seed, after it has been prepared in 
the manner before directed ; then, if the Farmer is in possession of 
the roller, let this be passed over the ground, particularly if it be 
somewhat dry; for, in such case, barley, being covered with a husk, 
requires a close envelopement with earth, in order that the progress 
of its germination be not pither partially or wholly retarded. Next 
Spring, give the ground a top-dressing of gypsum, of from one to 
two bushels tf) the acre, as circumstances may seem to i^equire. Two 
clover-crops are to be expected this season'. The next, either one 
or two may be taken, according to the clim^e, but usualW one only 
in more northerly regions; and in this caSe let the second growth be 
laid prostrate, by the roller p;issirtg over ft in the same direction in 
which the plougii is to follow, in order that the growth rftay be care- 
fully turned under, which, will form^ttfexcelent lay for Winter wheat, 
or for rye, if the climate is not adaplp to the growth of tlie former 

In suitable climates, wlSH^will succeed on a good clover-laiy, even 
on light sandy lands. It disbelieved, however, that the species of 
wheat which is considerably cultivated in Pennsylvania, called spelt 
( friticiuh sfielta) may be^successfidly cultivated in any part of the 
Northern States where wheat of the common sorts does not flourish. 
When the sward has been thus turned under, let the surface be level- 
ed by ruiiing the harrow ligiitly over it, in the same direction the 
plough runs, and then cover the seed with the harrow^, mn in a simi- 
lar direction. Let the seed-wheat be prepared in the :ABiner before 
describ 'd, and4et it be free from any mixture of rye, w the seeds 
of cockle or other weeds. Next Spring, give the ground another top- 
dr-jssin?; of gypsum, in-order that a growth of white clover may rise 
after harvest, as this will afford considerable"rall-feed, 'and a fresh 



APPENDIX. 451 

sward to be turned under in the latter part of the Fall, the effect of 
whicli will be expiuuit'd when sptaking- of munurcs, &.c. 

Thus our rolaiion rcquii'cs sia seasons lor its conipletion, and i? 
composed of six or more dilferenl and successive crops! In exhibit- 
ing our pian, wc jntencl il merely as an oitllme of what we deem at 
least one ot the best and most profitable systems ol" culture vhal can 
be pursued in g^ood arable lands, wheie all obstructions to the most 
complete culture have been removed. Other courses may probably 
be devised which may be as g-ood ; but we feel confident there can 
be none better. We consider this rotation as comprehending a suf- 
ficient vanet) of crops for every purpose of affording the land rest 
by changes; and although a course oi rotation might be made to in- 
clude a greater variety of crops, still tlie profits ot them, in the ag- 
grregale, would probably be less than in the plan we propose. We 
insist much on the culture ot root-crops for the greatest possible 
profits. In some instances, for the growtiis of roots and vines we 
propose, as well as of the grain-crops, others nnght be substituted, 
and sometimes, for the sake of further variety of growths, pariicuiarly 
ot roots, it migiit be advisable ;all this must, however, dej)end on the 
soil, and on other circumstances. If the soil be rich and deep, per- 
haps the mangel-wurtzei suould have a preference to the common 
turnip, and tl^^iJump kill, i" the first years crop, and perhaps in such 
soil the cabba^-culiure should sometime come ui for a share. 

We shoul^'Wrdly advise that crops of carrots or of parsnips should 
ever enter the list of a general roiation of crops, as they require pe- 
culiar soils, and uncommon pri paration. they are very valuable 
crops for particular purposes; but their uses, tor feeding and fating 
cattle, seem to be m a great measure superseded by the less exyjens- 
ive culture ot the crops before jnentioued. There are, liowever, 
some mellow fertile soils, of sandy texture, where these roots, par- 
ticularly carrots, may be cultivated with great advantage. A very 
serious objection to the culture of parsnips is, that, m the soils must 
suitable for them, they extend so deeply that their extraction from 
the earth is a matter of no small difficulty. 

In recommending the alternate culture of the pumpkin with the 
corn-crop, we have been influenced -by two considerations; firstly, 
from an account we have lately seen of a trial made of the culture of 
the large sort of pumpkin by itself, in which ai the rate of twenty- 
five tons to the acre were raised; and, secondly, we are of opnuon 
that in cultivating the crop, in the way we propose, nearly as great 
a product may be obtained as if the ground were planted entirely 
with this crop. Growing in (kjjts hy itself it will not impede the 
growth of Uie corn; nor do we^nceive that this crop will be injured 
by the extension of the pumpkin-vmes over the ground ; whereas, if 
the two crops were planted together in.^te same hills, or drills, as is 
commonly practised, the growth of t'ie d^^must, in a great measure, 
serve to rob the other of its dtie share of nutriment. The large sort 
of pumpkin, to which we have reference, has been raised of the 
weight of upwards of one hundred and fifty pounds ; but it is proba- 
bly less nutritious, because less sweet, than pumpkins of the common 
sorts. Another large sort, which we have seen exhibited in this 
county, of more than four feet in length, is probably entitled to a^ 
preferenc^lH&r culture, as it appears to be as sweet as pumpkins of 
the smalle^Kinds. 

In selecting seed for the pumpkin-crop, take such plants as bear 
the greatest weight of pumpkins, and from the largest of these let 
the seed be preserved.' 



452 APPENDIX. 

We have next to speak of the rotations proper for clayey lands, or 
those which have mort; or less alumin in their composition. Lands 
of this description are various, as well in regard to their natural fer- 
tility, as to their Ijeing n)ore or less inclined to a superabundance of 
moisture. Sorae are naturalfy too wet for cultivating even grain- 
crops with success; and should therefore be kept for mowing and 
g'razing-lands. Some again m-xy be merely too v/et for crops of Win- 
ter-grain, and in such case Spring crops should be substituted; while 
at the same time the lands should be more apphed to the business of 
the dairy, and of the Grazier. \n the mean time, let the Possessor 
of lands wiiich are naturally too wet, proceed to laying at least a part 
of them dry, by !>.ollow-drains; and then by makhig his barn-dung 
principally into heaps of compost, in which hme and sand sl^all be 
considerably vised as additional ingredients, and applying such com- 
post-manure to the drilled crops before mentiontd, and in the man. 
ner before directed, he will find no dithculty wimtever in pursuing 
the course of crops we have recommended, nor of raising them of 
luxuriant growth. Where clayey lands are naturally dry enough for 
Winter-crops, we advise to a similar course of crops, with the manure 
prepared and used in a simda" manner. In ail stiff soils, however, 
an important point in husbandry is to keep the ground, while under 
a course of crops, in a mellow crumbly state; and for- this purpose 
nothing is more conducive, than frequent tieep plougi^r\|'s, and rais- 
ing the ground into high narrow ridges, as v/ell to liSrsi that state 
during Winter, as for the culture of all the drilled crops in particular. 
The ridges are to be formed by four gathering-furrow's; and in cleav- 
ing the ridges down new ones are formed, with the middle or highest 
part of each where the last furrows were of the former ridges. When, 
therefore, the manure is to be used for the drilled crop, it is to be 
laid in the furrows, between the rii^ges, and then covered over with 
two gathering-furrows run on each side, and thus the beds or ridges 
for the crop are prepared. 

If, however, it should still be found that some clays, even with 
this management for the purpose of ameliorating them, should still 
be found unsuitable for Indian corn, and for the turnip and ruta-baga- 
crops, we can only advise that, for the former, the Winsor-bean, and, 
for the two latter, the mangle-wurtzel and the cabbage-crop, be made 
substitutes. The Winsor-bean is considerably cultivated in the clay- 
lands of Greatbritain ; and Mr. Dearie^ in his Farmer's Dictionary, 
says its growtli on such lands in this Country is luxuriant. Perhaps 
in place of this species of the bean, another, v/hich is cultivated in 
the Southern States, and is there Galled the cowpea, should be pre- 
fered. '#^ 

It should be further observed, that gypsum, v/hen applied as % 
top-dressing to clay-lands, Jttrticularly those which are too wet, has 
but very little ettect; but |Pen they are laid dry by hollow-drains, 
and thrown into ridges, as before mentioned, the effect of this ma- 
nure upon them is nearly the same as in other dry arable lands. And. 
as we conceive it essentially necessary that all clay-lands which are 
to be cultivated for Spring-crops, as well as all other soils which are 
naturally too wet, should lie in ridges during the Winter, we advise 
that, at the begining of the rotation we have mentioned,. such lands 
have a second ploughing in the Fall, for the purpose offing laid in 
such ridges. When thus laid, tiiey are easily retluced^ a mellow 
■■ state in the Spring; but, if this be neglected, they will usually be 
found, more or less, in hard baked clods, a state very unfit for good 
cultivation. 



APPENDIX. 453 

In Greatbritam, it is found essentially requisite that clay -lands 
should be eliectually Summer-fallowed, as often as every sixtlj year; 
as well for the purpose of extirpating gvowllis of weeds, as for Uiel- 
lowing the soil, and rendering it more lively. A fallowing- there is 
performed by many repeated ploughings and harrowings duiing the 
Summer. But it should be reniembered, that the chmaLof Ihat 
Country is very different from this. Their wheat-harvesi li in Au- 
tumn; their Summers being wet and cool. Here we have tinie, c>fter 
the harvest is over, to cleanse and enhven the soil" by repeated 
ploughings and harrowings. 

On hard, gravelly lands, which are unfit for any crops of roots, ex- 
cept perhaps potatoes, i>o very extensive rotation can be had to ad- 
vantage, without plentiful manuring. Gypsum has a powerful etttct 
on such lands, and with the aid of this^nanure alone, even the poor- 
est of gravels may be made to yield good crops of buckwheat and of 
red-clover; and on a lay of this ialter crop, turned under, a tolerably 
good crop of rye may be had. Saintfoin, and some other taprooled 
grasses, flourish in such soils better than might be expected. Gra- 
velly lands require very deep and frequent plouglinigs, in order to 
make them suthciently retentive of moisture. They are usuail> much 
assisted by compost-manures, where clay, mud, upland-marle, See. form 
u considerable share ot the ingredients. But as there are different 
degrees o^ fertility in gravelly lands, according to the nature of the 
gravel, and it^ greater or less predominance in the soil, we can lay 
down no definite course of crops thaj^in all cases would be found 
most advisable.- Say, however, that wHth etlectual deep ploughings, 
and plenty of suitable manure for the drills, the first crop shall be 
Indian corn, intermixed with the potatoe and the pumpkin-growths, 
las before mentioned ; next Spring, oats, or barley, if the ground will 
answer for this crop. ' As soon as this crop comes off, turn the stub- 
ble under, and harrow in buckwheat for a green-dressmg, in tbe 
manner mentioned in treating ot manures; and on this growth, turn- 
ed under, sow rye, if the ground is too gravelly for wheat. Sow the 
cloverseed the next Spring, in the quantity before mentioned, and 
then harrow the ground, which will serve the purpose of covering 
the seed, and also of assisting the growth of the crop of wheat or 
rye, as the case may be. The advantage derived from harrowing 
these crops in the Spring has been well ascertained by experiment. 
After the second years growth of clover has been fed or mowed off^ 
turn over the ground in the Fall, to commence the rotation anew. 

When we speak of gravelly lands, we do not mean to include those 
which are, propei-ly speaking, gravelly loams ; for soils of this de- 
scriptio!! are generally well fitea for the rotation first mentioned. 
By gravelly lands we mean those where gravel is mostly predomi- 
nant, as we call those lands sandy where silex forms the greatest 
proportion of the soil; and of these something is now to be said. 

As a specimen of what may be called light sandy lands, we will re- 
fer to much of those lying between Albany and Schenectady. These, 
like the gravelly lands just mentioned, are not, in their natural state, 
calculated for the production of many different crops in perfection; 
nor indeed for any, without manure. With the aid of gypsum alone, 
however, good crops of peas, and of buckwheat, may' be had on most 
of these lands ; tolerable, of red-clover ; and on the lay of clover, 
turned under, middling crops of rye may be had. Probably, with 
this manure, valuable crops of pumpkins might be raised on themj 
Lauds of this description have, however, very essential properites, 
which gravelly lands do not possess; they are much easier cultivated 
than the harder soils, and, in proportion to their natural fertility, no 



454, APPENDIX. 

lands are better adapted for root-crops of almost every sort, or for 
the grasses whose roots extend deep into the earth ; among- which 
are clover of different kinds, Saintfoin, lucerne. Sec. Such lands are 
least adapted for crops of w heat and Indian corn ; but, v/hen suffi- 
ciently ni£&»ured with clay, or upland-marle, which is better, they 
will yield tolerable crops of the latter, and also of the former, when 
raised on a lay of red-clover. 

Where little else than the contents of the barn -yard and gypsum 
can be had, for manuring sandy lands of the above description, the 
conVmon turnip and ruta-baga culture would not, perhaps, be ad- 
visable ; but the rotation should be something like the following: 
First year, potatoes and pumpkins in alternate drills, manured and 
treated as before described; second, peas, soaked in the solution 
before mentioned, and rolled in g}psum before sowing, with a top- 
dressing of that manure; third, buckwheat, treated in the same 
manner, and clo\ erseed sown with the crop; third and fourth, clo- 
ver, with a top-dressihg of gypsum each Spring; fifth, rye, on the 
clover turned under, as before described, which completes the 
course. 

But where upland-marle, or even clay, can be had, for the purpose 
of forming compost-manures with the barn-dung and the addition of 
some lime, as is described under manures, &c. we should advise to 
the rotation first described, or sometliing similar, in w-hiohthe root- 
crops should form a prominent part; and, in such case, let the ma- 
nure be plentifully applied tov^-the drilled crops. At first, periiaps, 
some of the crops would not be' so abundant ; but, uftder this man- 
agement the soil would be constantly improving, and of course the 
crops increasing. At first, perhaps, rye should be substituted for the 
wheat -crop; but each addition to the, soil, of the aluminous and cal- 
careous matter of wliich the compost is principally composed, would 
render the land better adapted for grain-crops of every description. 

It is a matter of the first importance to the Cultivator to possess an 
adequate knowledge of the different substances which may be used 
with advantage for fertilizing his lands, of the different soils to which 
such substances are best adapted, of the j)roper quantities to be used, 
and of the most advantageous time and manner ot their application. 
There is but little even ol the richest earths that will not become ex- 
hausted with constant croping without manure ; and soils are seldom 
so sterile, but that, with a proper application of suitable manures to 
them, they may be made the residence of plenty. 

Manures are of diff^erent kinds : Of animal, of vegetable, of fossil, 
and of mixed; of each of which notice wjll be taken in their order. 

The flesh of animals is an escelent manure for all soils, and is used 
to a considerable extent on the seacoast, where fish are caught in 
plenty. It is believed that fieali is used to most advav.tage in com- 
posts, and the same may be observed Vvith n^pre certainty in regard 
to the use of the blood. The sb.avings of the horny substances of 
animals, have very durable effects as a manure, in dry soils, by en- 
duing such with a greater power to retain moisture; and the same 
may also be observed of the hair and wool. The bones, when cal- 
cined, are also valuable, as they are principally phosphate of lime. 
The miasma, produced by the putrefaction of the ffesh and blood of 
anim'ls, is also food for plants, or at least its presence assists their 
growth. The urine is a fertilizer principally by reason of the salt it 
Contains, and probably also by its producing miasma. 

When animals die, it is uAual to let them lie above ground, to the 
annoyance of the Public: !)ut, if covered with earth, this, together with 
the flesh, &.c. of the animal, would be converted into good manure. 



APPENDIX. 455 

Of vegetable substances, it may be ffcnerally observed, that almost 
ev«ry sort of vt-getuble, not of wood) texture, buried in the soil 
while green, is more or less efficacious as a manure ; and that many 
sorts of these, when turned under where they grew, and while in a 
green state, will add much more fertililv to tlie*soil than their growth 
extracted from it; but that the same growth, when sufVer^ll to ripen 
on the ground, and then turned under, after the exhausti^i of its 
juices, will not generally repay the soil the nutriment it extracted 
from it while growing. It would seem that the 'ripening of plants is 
the principal cause of the exhavistion of soils, and, for this reason, 
green-dressings, that is, ploughing of green crops under, lias been 
found advantageous in enriching lands. Where green-dressings are 
resorted to, as a manure, such growths should be selectc d for the 
purpose as are cheap in the article of seed, and at the same time 
quick and bulky in their growths. Buckwheat has been much used 
for the purpose, though perhaps some other plants should be prefer- 
ed. The growth should be turned under wlien in blossom; and, in 
order that this be done efl'ectually, it shoidd be laid prostrate, by 
runing the roller over it, in the same direction in which the plough 
is to follow; after which, the ground should not be stired again till 
this manure has sufficiently roted. Genendly, we think it would be 
most advisable to sow on the lay or furrow, by which the green-crop 
is turned under. 

There may be some instances where manuring with green-dressings 
may be advisable, paiticularly where it can be clone without prevent- 
ing the growth of any intervening cr<^. Where this is not practi- 
cable, we should hardly advise to this method of manuring, unless in 
cases where other manures were not to be obtained. One case we 
will however mention, wljiere a green-dressing might be given to 
advantage. Suppose, for instance, a crop of rye, oats, or barlev har- 
^'ested, and the ground cleared of the crop, by the 2Uth of July; in 
that case, let the stubble be in)mediately turned under, and the 
ground harrowed in with buckwheat; by the 20th of Se]btember 
this growth- would be fit to be turned under, when a crop of wheat 
might be sown on the lay. It should be understood, that rye is one 
of the best crops to precede a crop of wheat, or to follow it. In the 
same manner, therefor% the crop for a green-dressing may be raised 
in the wheat-stubble turned under, and the green-crop turned under 
for a crop of rye. *• 

But the contents of the barnyard, and the excrements of cattle, 
are the principal sources of manure of the vegetable kind; and of 
these it is necessary to treat particularly, as well of the qualities of 
the different sorts, as of their most advantageous applications to soils. 
The sorts of dung or excrement to be noticed, are those of Hnrses, 
Neat-cattle, Sheep, and Swine. The dung of Swine is most valuable, 
where properly apphed; that of Sheep is the next; that of Cows ranks 
in the third degree; and that of Horses in the fourth. Tgie dung of 
the latter, if suffered td'lie in aheap till it becomes thonMighly heat- 
ed, assumes a whitish or mouldy color, and is then of but little vakie. 
It is of a warm nature, and is best adapted for being well buried in 
jnoist or clayey soils; cow-dung, on the contrary, is most suitable for 
dry soils; sheep dung answers best on the soils for which that of 
Horses is best suited; but is very valuable for almost any soil. 
Hog-dung should only be applied to dry arable lands, and is most 
powerful in those of a sandv or gravelly nature. Dung, of all sorts, 
loses much of its valuable qualities by exposure to frequent rajns, 1 
particularly when lying at but little depth over a considemble 



456 APPENDIX. 

svirface. Its good qualities are best preserved by lying in large 
heaps, and if under cover so much the better. 

The stercorary is the most effectual method for preserving barn- 
dung, and it is believed that every Farmer will find his money well 
expended in the erection of this receptacle for the contents of that 
part of his barnyard, which is not used in the Spring. The sterco- 
rary may serve for a sheep-fold during Winter, and will thus ajiswer 
a twofold purpose. Jt may be, for instance, forty feet in length, six- 
teen in breadtli, and of suitable height. The floor is to be made of a 
layer of clay, with the surface smootldy paved with small stones, and 
highest in the middle, so that the juices of the dung may run off to 
the sides, where a gutter i-eceives this liquid, and carries it into a 
reservoir, sunk at one end, into wliich a pump is to be fixed to raise 
the liquid and throw it back over the heap. The floor, gutter, and 
reservoir are on a plan similar to those of a cider-press. The liquid 
that runs from the lieap is the most valuable part, and slu)uld never 
be lost : This plan is therefore calculated to preserve it; and, for the 
purpose of absorbing the whole of it, any dry vegetable matter, or 
rich earth, may be laid over the heap, and this liquid t)iro\vn on that, 
which will serve to convert the whole into good manure. The juices 
of the soluble and gaseous parts of the excrements of cattle, together 
with the stale, are what principally aflbrd nutriment for growing 
plants; and every mean by which these can be saved, by their being 
absorbed in other substances, of rich earthy or vegetable' matter, 
would seem to be well worthy of attention. We will next designate 
what is usually considered the^methods most proper for the applica- 
tion of duiig. 

Wiiere lands are in grasses of the fibrous-rooted kinds, it is the 
generally-received opinion of the best CiAtivators, that barn-dung, as 
veil as manure of every other kind, should be applied as a top- 
dressing, that is, by spreachng it on the surface; but that for tap- 
rooted grasses, or those whose roots extend deeply, as well as for all 
grain and root-crops, this manure should be buried in the soil, at 
Such de])ths as are best suited to the nature of the roots of the plants 
to be cultivated. The operation of barn-dung, and of all vegetable 
and animal substances used in manv.re, seems to be this : If laid at a 
certain depth beneatli the surface of the soil, in the progress of their 
decomposition their soluble parts pass into the form of gas, or vapor, 
and of course rise to the surface, and in their ascent are more or less 
absorbed by the roots of the plants; on the contrary, if these ma- 
nures be laid on the surface, these soluble parts, in the progress of 
decomposition, never become aeriform, but are washed downwards, 
in their liquid slate, where they are in like manner al)Sorbed by the 
roots of the plants. This is ])robably as correct an explanation as 
can be given of tlie effect of these manures. It is well known that 
ground, long used as a graveyard, becomes very fertile, notM'ithstand- 
ing tlie suMltances, which are the cause of such fertility, are laid at 
a very great depth. 

It has been held by some English Writers, that barn-dung should 
be well rot>2d previous to its apidicalion as a manure ; ':)ut this opin- 
ion is rejected by Sir Humphrey Davy, one of the mo3t scientific 
Agriculturists of Greatbritain; and also by Arthur Yowig, Esq. Mr. 
I)avy contends, that this manure may in most instances be as well 
apphed fresh as in any other way, by its being laid at a proper depth 
beneath the surface, "and that in scarcely any instance is it advis ble 
^hat it should undergo more than the first stage of decomposition be- 
fore it is used. WHien well roted it is, however, more efficacious for 
a sljigle crop ; but its use is of much slioner duration. It seems, 



APPENDIX. 457 

also, to be generally agreed, that using- this manure for di-yi-crops, 
burying- it a good depth, and raising the plants over the du!ig thus 
buried, is the best possible way in which it can be used. We lately 
saw an account published of upwards of one hundred bushels of In- 
dian corn to the acre being raised by this mode of culture. The 
success of Mr. Cobbctt, and others, in raising great crops of ruta- 
baga by this method of using this manure, seems to demonstrate its 
utility, if evidence were wanting further than what appears in Eng- 
lish publications on the subject. 

The plan that we would therefore recommend is, to apply the 
fresh barn-dung to all drill-crops which are to be put in the ground 
in the Spring, and for these we refer to what has been said under 
rotation of crops. The shortest dung should be used for these pur- 
poses, except for potatoes; and it should, as far as practicable, be 
applied to the soils best adapted for each kind of dung, as has belbre 
been mentioned. The longer or more strawy parts of the dung, we 
should advise to be laid in the stercorary, if this building has been 
provided, or else somewhere under cover; or, if no cover caji be 
afforded, let it be thrown in a heap about three or four feet high; 
and, wherever it be laid, let it be stired up from the bottom in the 
course of about five or six v/eeks after it has been thus heaped or 
otherwise stored away; after which it will soon be found well fited 
for being used for the crop of ruta-baga. It is also advisable to cover 
the heap with a layer of good earth, which will serve to absorb and 
retain much of the steam or gaseous matter that rises from the heap, 
and when saturated with this, and mixed with the mass of dung, will 
be found a valuable addition. 

Of manures-w'hich may be termed fossils we will mention the vari- 
ous kinds of calcareous substances; the stony matter called pyrites, 
•coal, saltj peaty substances ; silicious and aluminous earths. Lime- 
stone, gypsum, chalk, and marie, are the calc*eous substances w« 
shall notice, and each in its order. « 

Limestone (carbonate of lime) has always more or less aluminous 
or silicious earth in its composition. Frequently also it contains 
magnisia. Limestone of this latter description, when calcined, makes 
what the* English Farmers call hot lime, which is more powerful in 
its effects, and therefore less'of it should be applied at once to the 
soil. That without any mixture of magnesia is considered more 
durable in its operation, but less powerful. Magnesian limestone is 
known by its effervescing but little, when plunged in ni|,ric or other 
acid; while limestone tliat is not magnesian, when thus immersed, 
produces a strong effervescence. The magnesian, also, when im- 
mersed in diluted nitric acid, or aqua-fortis, r^fders the liqitvd of a 
milky appearance. It is usually of a brownish or paK^'yellow color. 
Reing- more caustic, when calcined, than common limestone, it is 
more efficacious in decomposing peaty earths, and is best adapted 
for soils wiiich have too much either of peaty or vegetable T^atter in 
them. Where lands have been injured by too plentitvd an applica- 
tion of this lime, peaty earth should be applied to them, to correct 
the evil. 

The trials of lime in this Country have been quite limited, and 
confined mostly to the Middle States, particularly Penns} Ivania. It 
has usually been applied there at the rate of about forty bushels to 
the acre ; but, whether the lime used there is magnesian, we have 
never imderstood. Lime may be applied as a top-dressing, <5r mixed 
with the soil. Its application has been found most successful, when 
the first succeeding crop was Indian corn : Afterwards, wheat is 
grown to advantage. Instances are mentioned, in the Memoirs »f the 

- >8 



45S APPENDIX. 

A.sjricultural Society of Philadelphia, where gypsum had no effect on 
wornout; lands, till they were first manured with lime. 

British Writers say that lime may be applit^d with equal advantage, 
either when newly slakecl or afterwards ; that its ettects are not 
always the same,, particularly where soils are different; but that 
usually it is a very dui'able manure. A much larger quantity is, how- 
ever, applied in Greatbritain, than has been usual here ; but perhaps 
the coolness of the Summers there renders more requisite. We 
pretend to advise to no particular rules in the application of lime in 
this Country, farther than that about forty bushels to the acre be. first 
tried; but le|s for sandy sojls, and perhaps more for those which are 
stiff clays, would be advisable. In clays of tins description, lime is 
particularly useful in destroying the adhesive quality of such soils, 
and thereby rendering them a mere friable loam. Such has been its 
effects on the clay-lands which abound so much in England. Where 
the lime is magnesian, let trials be made of about twenty bushels to 
the acre. 

That Country abounds much in the calcareous matter denominated 
Chalk, which is also converted into lime by calcination, and used as 
a manure. It forms a weaker sort of lime. As this substance, how- 
ever, is hardly to be found in this Country, it will be unnecessary 
further to speak of this manure. 

Gypsuni (sulphate of lime) is a most powerful stimulant to the 
growtli of many crops, in all dry soils in this Country ; but with the 
following exceptions : It has no sensible effect on lands newly clear- 
ed, on those in the vicinity of the ocean, nor on those which have 
been completely exhausted by severe croping. Tn soils of this latter 
description, some pabulous matter must be given them for the gyp- 
sum to digest or act upon ; and this may be a previous manuring 
with lime, marie, bog-earth, barn-dung, or perhaps any substance that 
is calculated to improve the condition of the soil. It should also be 
observed, that the application of gypsum frequently fails entirely of 
producing its effects, if followed by uncommon drought, or unusually 
wet weather. It is generally most poweiful, when ap{)lied to growths 
of leguminous plants, to tliose extending in vines, such as the vari- 
ous species of the gourd-tribe, the strawberry, 8cc. and to several 
sorts of the green -crops, particularly potatoes, clover-grasses, lu- 
cern, &c. On fibrous rooted grasses,-, and those grain-plants most 
ijearly related to them, such as wheat, rye, oats, barley, &,c. it has 
no sensible effect, when applied as a top-dressing to the growing 
«.' plants. OiVjJBuckwheat it is very powerful, and for Indian corn it is 
also valuable. 

Judge Peters, of Pennsylvania, whose exp^ience of its uses has 
been long aocl extensive, says, that although he has found this ma- 
nure of little use to many sorts of plants, when applied to them as a 
top-dressing; yet he has invariably found that all plants derive bene- 
fit from^ieir seeds being rolled in gypsum, after being soaked in 
some liqifid before sowing or planting. As a manure, however, for 
wheat, or grain-crops of similar kinds, immense benefit, may be de- 
lived from it, by applying it to the sward, as a top-dressing, as uitable 
length of time before the ground is broken up. In this way, two 
bushels of gypsum may be made to give an additional increase of 
eiglit or ten bushels of wheat to the acre. Take, for instance, land 
which in its natural state, and with the usual culture, will only yield 
ten bushels of wheat t^ the acre ; in the Fall, or early in the Spring, 
(1, give it a top-drt ssing of two bushels of gypsum to the acre; by the 
middle of June follow ing the land will exhibit afresh green-sward, 
principally of white-clover; and when land is thus clothed in ver- 



APPENDIX. 459 

dure, it Is a sure indication of a great addition to its fertility, and 
that a .,ood crop may tlien be expected. When, therefore, the 
green-sward is thus tunned, turn it under, and tlicn, with tlie usual 
culture, twenty bushels of wlieatto the acre may be expected, wliere 
only ten would have been had without tins application of g-} psum. 
Yet the same quantity of this manure, applied as a top-dressing to the 
growing crop ot wheat, would have had no sensible ellect. It should 
therefore be understood, that for all growths which derive little or no 
benefit from gypsum, when applied as a top-dressing to the growing 
plains, the ground should be previously •enriched by applying this 
inaaure to the sward, a suiiab.e length of time betore it is to be 
broken up, which will usually be truni two to three months. At all 
events, as soon as the sward fully exhibits the etiects of the gypsum 
it may be turned under. Wherever a sward is to be turned under, 
this practice siiould be invariably pursued, that the gvound may be 
renuered more fruitful for the crop that is to tbllow. 

In this Country, g\ psum is«i great source of wealth, wherever soils 
are sensible to its eitects. It has tended much to equalize the value 
of lanus, by impartiiig an artificial fertility to those naturally more 
sterile, and that hi a small expense. But gypsum alone is by no 
means sufficient tor keeping lands in the improved condition that is 
necessary for raising th(i uesi crops, ami of course deriving the great- 
est profits, riie Farmer siio^ld attend also to making the most of 
such other manures as come conveniently within his reach. We are, 
however, no Advocate for obtaining manures at any price : I'hey 
may cost too much ; but almost every Farmer, whose lands are of 
suitable- quality, 'and who stocks tliem with as many cattle as he can 
keep m good order, and then makes the best use of the manure they 
afiord, may usually, with the judicious use otgvpsum, added to good 
culture, keep his lands in an improving conditiom 

But some soils are so constituted as to be of diminished value, 
without a suitable mixture oi other earths, and in such case are per- 
manently benefited by such additions. If lands, for instance, a.re 
too sandy, or graveil}, the addition of clay to them, or, what is l^eU 
ter, of upland-marle, will permanently improve the soil ; and wliere 
these earths can be lound withm reasonable distance it will usually 
be labor well expended. We will state a case in point. In the rear 
of the city of Albany lies an immense body of calcareous earth, 
which may properly be called a schistic-marle. It is commonly call- 
ed blue-clay. I'hi's, when mixed with a due proportion of sand, 
forms a very fertile and durable soil. Further west of the city lie 
large tracts of ^andy lands, which require suitable proportions of this 
marie to render tiiem fit for good culture, and with such additions 
much of them would be found very valuable. Where they he suffi- 
ciently level, and are not too sandy, it will probably be' found that 
from lialf a ton to a ton, for every rod square, would be sufficient to 
render them very fertile, and fited for the most profitable rotations 
of crops. 

This sort of marie, which may be found in various parts of the 
Country, and very frequently under tracts of sandy lands, is a valua- 
ble and permanent manure in all dry soils which are deficient of cal- 
careous matter, and have not already too great a proportion of clay. 
This manure should be laid on the land as a top-dressing, that it may- 
be completely pulverized before it is mixed with the soil. 

U/: land- marie is sometimes found of silicious texture, in which 
case it is good for stifi' soils, as well as for others. It is also found 
of different colors, when combined with argilaceous matter, and of 
different qualities; that containing, most lime or calcareous matter 



460 APPENDIX, 

being always the best. Maries of this description are often very vai- 
liable in forniuig a principle ingredient in composts, of which we 
shall presently speak, and the same may be nbserved of the superior 
sorts of this manure found in bog-swamps, of winch something shall 
now be said. 

This sort of marie is found, at greater or less depths, beneath the 
surface of mnny bog-swamps, and is of a whitish, a grayish, or a 
brownish color. The wiiltest is the most pov\ ej-fviJ, hnving most lime 
in it; the grayish is next m quality. Tlie superstratum is either a 
bog-eavth, to nvit, vegctal>ie mutter totally decomposed; or it is a 
peaty substance, or vegetable matter in a partial state of decomposi- 
tion. The bog-earth is good manure of itself, and nvay be used 
separately, or mixed with the jnarle; the peaty substance must under- 
go a further decomposition, before it is rendered valuable as a ma- 
nure, it being then rendered similar to bog-earth. These manures, 
when applied to growing crops, are somewhat similar in their effects 
to thost; of gypsum. The} are valuable as top-dressings, or for mix- 
ing with the soil. Their effects are very powerful on Indian corn, 
and they are more or less valuable when applied to almost every sort 
of upland-crop, with the exception of wheat, rye, and barley. For 
these they are to be applied to the sward, a suitable time before 
breaking it up, as has been mentioned in Regard to/ gypsum. It 
should, however, be observed, that neither* decomposed peat, nor 
bog-eanh, should be applied to soils which already contain too great 
a proportion of decomposed vegetable matter. 

The condition of clay-soils is also permanently improved, by mix- 
ing a due proportion of sai>d in them. The most durable and perfect 
soil is chiefly composed of certain proportions of sand, clay, lime, and 
vegetable matter in a state of decompositioii ; and, whenever any soil 
is destitute of a due proportion of any of these, the addition of such 
earthy substance can never fail to serve as a manure. 

The stony earth called pyrites, when pulverized by the aid of a 
proper degree of calcinntion, is much used, and hig-hly esteemed, in 
Flanders, as a top dressing for grass-lands, as is mentioned in a com- 
mumcation of the late Chancellor Livingsto?i to the Society for the 
promotion of the useful arts in this State. We will refer the Reader 
to the second volume published by that Society, for the manner of 
preparing this manure, and the quantity to be used, &c. 

Of Coal, we shall merely state that, from the results of experi- 
ments made by the late Mr. MuhlcJiberg, of Pennsylvania, about 
forty bushels to the acre of this substance, pulverized in the manner 
of gypsum, v/as found a good manure, when applied as a top-dressing. 
Common Salt, pulverized, and applied as a top-dressing, at the 
rate of from two to four bushels to the acre, has, in many instances, 
power^il effects as a manure. Sea-water is peculiarly adapted for 
this purpose. Mr. Deane, in his Farmer's Uictiouury, mentions an 
instance where a crop of potatoes, and another of flax, were greatly 
increased in product by an apj)lication of sea-water to them while 
growing. About a pint of the water was applied to each bill of po- 
tatoes, and for the fiax-crop the water was sprinkled- over the 
ground. 

Some trials have been made in this Country of burnt'day, as a 
manure, and its use is recommended, particularly for all dry arable 
lands, not inclining to clay. The first step in preparation foi*^burning 
^' clay is, to have a considerable quantity of xhis earth dug up in spits, 
and laid to dry in tiie sun : When pretty well dried, you prepare for 
burniHg by raising a little pile of dry w'ood in the shape of a pyramid, 
say-j four or five feet high ; »ound tliis you build up the dried spits 



APPENDIX. 461 

«f clay, leaving a hole at the bottom, for the entrance of the air, and 
another at the top, for it to pass oli'. Such, at least, was the method 
formerly practised in Greatbritain ; but the modern improvement of 
retaining the smoke within the mass, agreeably to the plan spoken 
of by Mr. Cobbett, for burning earth, ought also to be pursued in 
burning clay. After the fire has been set to the wood, you continue 
diging up fresh clay and piUng it around and over the heap, as last as 
the fire penetrates the mass; taking care, however, not to pile on so 
much at once as to extinguish the fire. If there be danger of its be- 
coming extinguished, it may be advisable to make one or more holes 
in the sides of the heap by runing a pole into it. The fresh earth 
is to be added during pleasure, or until -a sufficient quantity is burn- 
ed. After the heap has cooled it is fit for use, by nuxing with the 
soil, as directed by Mr. Cobbett, for applying burnt-earthy- of which 
we will next speak. 

By a late improvement, earths, other than those of clay, are suc- 
cessfully converted into good manure, by the process of burning. 
It is effected by retaining the smoke within the mass of eartli, while 
in a state of ignition. Mr. Cobbttt says he has tried this manure for 
the ruta-baga-crop, and found it as efficacious as barn -dung. His 
manner of preparing it, and which we believe would also be the best 
method of preparing burnt-clay, is as follows : 

< 1 make acircle (says Mr. Cobbett) or an oblong square. I cut 
sods and build a wall ail round, three feet thick, and four feet high. 
I then light a fire in the 'middle with straw, dry sticks, boughs, , or 
such-like matter. I go on making this fire larger and larger, till it 
extend over the whole bottom of the pit or kiln. 1 put on roots of 
tree^ or any rubbish-wood, till there be a good thickness of strong 
coals. I then put on the driest of the clods that I have ploughed up 
round about, so as to cover all the fire over. The earth thus put in 
will burn. You will see the^ smoke coming out at little places here 
and there. Put more clods wherever the smoke appears. Keep on 
thus, for a day or two. By this time, a great mass of fire will be in 
the inside. And now you may dig out the clay, or earth, any where 
round the kiln, and fimg it on without,cereniony, always taking care 
to keefi in the smoke; for, if you suffer that to continue coming out 
at any one place, a hole will soon be made ; the main force of the fire 
will draw to that hole ; a blaze, like that of a volcano, will come out, 
and the fire wdl be extinguished. 

* A very good way is, to put your finger into the'top of the heap 
here and there ; and, if you find the fire very near, throw on more 
earth. Not too much at a ti?ne, for that weighs too heavilj^on the 
fire, and keeps it back; and, Sitjirst, will put it partially out. You 
keep on thus augmenting the kihi, till you get to the top of the walls, 
and then you may, if you like, raise the walls, and still go on. No 
rain will affect the fire, when it is become strong. 

* The principle is to keep out air, whether at the top or the sides, 
and this you are sure to do, if you kee/i in the smoke. I burnt, the 
last Summer, about thirty wagon-loads in one round kiln, and never 
saw the smoke at all, after the first four days. It put in my finger to 
try whether the fire was near the top ; and, when I found it ap- 
proaching, put on more earth. Never was a kiln more completely 
burnt. 

' Now, this may be done on the skirt of any wood where the mat- 
ters are all at hand. This mode is far preferable to the above grouni'% 
burning in heaps. Because, in the next place, the smoke escapes 
there, which is the finest part of the burnt matter. Soot, we know 
well, is more powerful than ashes, and spot is composed of the 



462 APPENDIX. 

grossest fiarts of the smoke. That which flies out of the chimney is 
l4»e, best part ot ail. 

» In case ot a want of wood wherewith to beg-in the fire, the fire 
may be ligated precisely as in the case o\' flaring and burning. If 
the kiln be large, the oblong square is the best fignire. About ten 
J'eet ividey because then a Man can fling- the earlti easily over every 
part. The mode th^y pursue in England, when there is no wood, is 
to make a sort of building in the kiln with turfs, and leave airholes at 
the corners of the walls, tdl the fire be well begun. But this is 
tedious work; and is in this Country wholly unnecessary. Care must, 
however, be taken, that the tire be well lighted. The matter put in 
at Jirat should be such as is of the ligluest description ; so that a 
bt>ay of earth on fire may be obtained, before it be too heavily 
loaded. '" 

« The buFTiing being completed, having got the quantity you want, 
let the kiln remain. The fire will continue to work, until all is ashes. 
If you want to z^se the ashes sooner, open the kiln. They will be 
cold enough to ren^ove m a week.' 

A practice has long prevailed in Europe, of paring and burning 
soils, for the purpose of improving their texture and rncreasing their 
fertility. On clay -lands, and such as contain, too much vegetable 
matter, we conceive the process might be advisable, if not too ex- 
pensive. Its effect on clays is to destroy the adhesive quality of the 
soil, as the earih burned becomes rather of a sihcious texture; and 
at the same time the surface is much enriched by the operation. In 
the other case, it is calculated to reduce the redundancy of vegetable 
matter, as v/ell as to enrich the soil. The operation is performed in 
the following manner: 

When the ground is in a good sward of grass let it be carefully 
turned over with the plough; the irons of which should be well 
sharpened. Let tJie plough run about three inches deep. Then 
cross-plough with a very sharp coulter, and the sward will all be cut 
into squares of about ten or twelve inches. Set these square chunks 
up edgways, by leaning two together, and they will soon dry. When 
well dried, build a part of them up in the form of little ovens, at the 
distance of about eighteen feet each way. These are all to have a 
little opening or door, at a common windward side, for the air to 
enter, and another opening above, for the smoke to pass off. On 
some dry day, when the wind is fair for blowing into the holes below, 
place some straw or other dry rubbish into the holes, and set fire to 
it. As soon as the fires have got fully going in each of the heaps, let 
the holes in the tops be sroped up, for the purpose of retaining the 
smoke, and keep gradually building up the heaps as the fire pene- 
trates them, until all the chunks of eanh are piled up round them; 
and when the 1^-aps have fully burned, and sufficiently cooled, they 
are to be ^'^enly spread over the ground, and ploughed in. 

In some parts of Greatbritain it has been the practice to burn peat- 
earth, in a manner very similar to that before described for burning 
clay, and the ashes were used for top -dressings; but we believe this 
practice has mostly given way to that of roting or decomposing peat 
in compost; as follows: You form the compost-heap of about one- 
half of peat, a fourth of lime, and a fourth of barn-dung, and these are 
^ to be separately laid along in a manner most convenient to be after- 
wards thrown into the compost-heap in their proper proportions, 
"ifpu commence at one end with spreading a layer of, peat on tlie 
ground, say, ten feet square and four inches in depth ; then a layer 
of lime on this, and another of barn -dung, each two inches thick; 
then another layer of peat, as before, and then the lime and bara- 



APPENDIX. 463 

dung", as before, until in this way the heap is raised about four feet 
high, and let the last layer be of peat : Then commence another len- 
feet square alongside of this, and raise it, as before, till you raise it 
to the same height; then with another ten-feet square, at the end of 
this mass, and so on, till the heap is completed. After the heap has 
stood a while, it will heat, and when the heat begins to subsidt-, you 
commence again at one end of the heap and cut the wiiole down to 
the bottom, with the spade, and form a new heap, throwing the ex- 
terior parts of the heap, thus cut down, into the middle of the other. 
A second heating of the mass will then commence, and when that 
subsides, the peat will be foimd sufficiently „ decomposed, and the 
whole an excelent mass of manure. 

In this Country, peaty substances are usually to be found in mo- 
rasses; as the suptrstratum of marie, as betbre mentioned; as the 
principal ingredient of the salt-marshes cojitigvious to tlic ocean; and 
as the superstratum of tracts of cold lands which are cdlered with 
g-rowths of evergreen trees. 

In making composts with upland-marle, b^ore mentioned, the 
proportions of the marie, with that of the lime and dung, may be 
similar to those just mentioned for the peat-composts, or perhaps 
the marie may be in greater proportion. The layers of each may be 
as before described, but the heap only raised to such height that it 
may be cleft down to the bottom with the plough, then thrown to- 
gether in a ridge again with this implement; and let these operations 
be repeated,*at intervals, tijlthe wliole becomes well mixed, pulve- 
rised, and in a state of fermentation ; when it is fit for use, and 
shjpuld be immediately applied to the soil, in the manner before 
mentioned. ., < 

The use of wood-ashes, as a manure, is well known. It is good 
for almost all crops,' and is to be used as a top-dressing. It is much 
more efficacious a^ a manure in some pa^rts of the*Country than 
others, particularly on Longisland. It is most valuable on light dry 
soils, particularly those which' are sandy. Soot, as a top-dressing, is 
much more valuable than ashes, and is proper for almost all arable 
lands. It is most efficacjq'Us when well pulverized before its appli- 
cation. ,, * 

The dung of fqwils of every sort has much calcareous matter in it, 
and is very efficacious applied as top-dressings. Malt-dust is good 
in the same way : Forty bushels of it is* a' proper allowance to the 

jVights/iade should be rmxed with earth, say, two-thirds of the 
latter to one of the former? and in the course of a few months it 
forms an excelent manure, in most European cities this excrement 
is carefully collected, for manure ; while in this Country its use has 
been neglected. , 

Many liquids* are furnished from every domicile, and particularly' 
the kitclien, which, mixed ^ith earths, and other substances, woidd 
form valuable masses of manure. The liquids to'"'i|hich we principally 
refer, are Ihe soapsuds, dishwater, ferine of nieat, urine, &c. These 
should all be preserved, by being absorbed in rich earthy substances, 
together with the contents of the hogsty; and in this way a large 
heap of good manure may be made, that is commonly lost for want 
of attention in saving these ingredients. 



ERRATA. 



In page 5, for rulkd the storm, read r^il'd tht storm. Page 15, 
for a7id cro/i-filoughed, read a?jd cross-filong'hed. Page 28, for a 
kind of diahoeay read a kind of diarhoea. Page 38, for deaded the 
fires, read deaden the fires ~ Page 40, for Scoth, read Scotch. Page 
62, for Fioria, read Fiorin and Guinea-gras§. Page 66, for lacua- 
tions, read lacerations. Page 80, fov froms hells, read from shells. 
Page 93, for stiff fiarUcularly, read ^^z^ c/ai/5 particularly. In 
page 103, in the last sentence of the thh-d paragraph from toj), the 
two middle lines are to be transposed, in order to render the sentence 
intelligible. Page 115, for taking of read taking off. Page 128, 
for Anthox An'thum, read Anthoxanthum. Same page, for se~cere 
clod, read se-uere cold- Page 157, 10th line from bottom, for see 
Sivinet read see Stcamboiler. Page 168, for acid of lime^ read aid 
of lime.. «■ ■ • ♦ ^ 



INDEX. 



INTRODUCTION Page 3 

Recommendation 7 

Air • . ^ 9 

Apples 10 8c 441 

Appletre» 11 



Apricot 

Ash 

Aslies 

A sparagus 

Ass 



B. 



Barley 
Barn 
Barnyard 
Bean » 
Beer 
^Bees 
Beet 

Bog-meadows 
Borecole, or Coleseed 



13 
15 

16 
17 

ib. 
19 

35 
34 



P.otworm* ^ 

Bread 
Buckwheat 
Bull 
!}urn-baking 

Bovnct gras/8 
Bu rut-clay 
Butter 



c. 



Cabbage ^ .. 40 Sc 442 

Calves 41 

Camel 442 

Canker 41 

Canker- wormi * ib. 

Caper * '* 443 

Carriages • * 41 

Carrot 43 & 44^. 

Caterpillars , 45 

Cattle ib. 
Change and Improvement of ^ 

Seeds li * %. 

Change of Crops 47 

Cheese • 52 

Churn 54 



Cider 

Clay 

Clearing of Land* 

Clin-iatfe *^^ 

Clover ,- 

Composts 

Cornslieller 

Cotton . , . , 

Cows 

Ct^ibappl^lree 

Cream 

Cucuniber 

C'.»rvant 

Cutiner's 



ib. 
ib. 
ib. 
13 



36 
441 

37 
38 
ib. 

442 
39 

■ib. 



55 
<30 
«1 
62 
ib. 
64 
ib^ 
65 
67 
ib. 
63 
69 
70 
71 



D. 



Dairy 73 
Dew 2b. 
Ditch. *,.. 74 
Divisions of'a Farm "^ . ib. 
Dressing • 7)5 


Drill 

D r ought i[^- 

Dung,a)unghill«, &c« 
Dying of Clothe, &c. 

<• 


Earth! J| 
film ^^ 


79 
91 

■ ^^' 5 


Enclosure* 
Experim^ttlM 
9 



75 

76 
77 
ik. 



A6& 



INDEX. 



F. 



rallo-vying- of Land" 


Page 92 


Fodder and Foddering PagelOG 


Fi^ise Qu^ner 


■-*••• 99 


Folding" of Land 


107 


Tavcy 


-" id. 


Food ot Plants 


108 


Fences 


id. 


Forest ^ 
Foundering of Horses 


109 


Fc.-'iientation 


1U2 


111 


Fli-u 


ib 


Freezing- 


112 


Flux 


103 


Fruit-trees 


113 


FnM.ding" of Lands 


305 


l'"uel 


117 


Fouls, or Colts 


ib. 


Fulktr's Thistle 


120 




G. 




Gardens * 


121 


Grasses 


126 


GaVi^et 


122 


Gi-avel 


140 


G:-S 


lb.. 


Green-dressiil^ 


ib. 


G!.,;,der» 


ib. 


Greens '^ 


ib. 


On His 


ib. 


Gieen-scouring ' 


141 


(-■..■•■-..e . 


123 


Gripes ^ 
Groves^ 


ib. 


G(;i«s-'berry 


ib. 


ib. 


Graf iiig- 


ib. 


Guinea-corn 


142 


Grainfiouse, or Granar/ 


125 


Gjpsum 


id.' 




H. ; 




Harrows and Harrowing- 


ll3 


Hills «ndiS,VaUeys 


155 


H.Hvve^ing- ^ 
Haws, or Hooks 


144 


Hoe aTid Hociug- 


156 


ib. 


Hugsty 


ib. 


Hi.yn.aking 


145 


Hog-s _. * 


157 


Hc(ig-es 


147 


Hollow-drains 


ib. 


Htrtip 


152 


Hop 


161 


Herdsgrass 


155 


Horn-distemper 


163 


Hessiwt ily 


ib. 


Horse »» , - 
Horseshoe J* * 


ib. 


Hidebound 


ib. 


167 




« 




Improvement of Land ^ 


w. 


Tndig-o 


185 


Iiuirclniig- , ^ 
Indian Cqjrn ^ 


Iiiaculatiner, or Budinsr 


187 


^ ib. I'TjIects" -^ 


189 & 444 


Indiati Hemp, 


184 

J- 




JftUfidice 


196 1 Jerusalenu Artichoke 


196 


* ^ . 


K. 




Kil]"i:vgt)f Beasts 


''' 1 


A 


' 




I. am pa's 


197 Loam 


198 


A avers 


198 Locust - ^ 


ib. 


}Jcc 


ib. \ Loflibardy "Poiplar 


199 


Limestone 


ib. 


Luceriie 


ib. 



#■ 



INDEX. 



^67 



M. 



Madder 


Page 


199 


Milkweed 


Page 


23S 


Mang-el-wurlzel 




20KJ 


Ml) let 




233 


WaiHires 




2w6 


>£os&.> 




ib. 


Maple 




22/ 


Mowing 




334 


Miives 


« 


228 


viowing-grouiTd 




ib. 


Marie 




229 


\Uul, ' 




23* 


''Meadows 




ib.. 


Mulberry 




ib. 


Melon 


•« 


230 


VUde 




ib. 


•MeTheKlin 




ib. 


Mustard 




336 


Mildew . >"" 




231 


Myrtle 




//^. 


• 




• N- 






Neat-catt»' 




237 


Niwsery 




263 


Krttle 




261 


Nutriment of Food 




3«4 



Uew Horse-hoeing Husbandry 262 



Oak 

Oats 
Olive 



o. 



265 
267 
268 



Onion 
Orchard 



Overtiov^ing of. the Gall 



268 
278 



Painting of Buildings, &c. 278 

Parsnip ' . :., 279 

Pasture ' ib. 

Picture of Plants 281 

Pea * . : 282 

Peacluree 284 

Peartree 287 

Perry « * ' ■ " 288 

Plaiictree, or Butt on wood ■ib< 

Plough ' V 289 



Ploughing 
Plumtree 
Pollfcvil 
I'ouds 
i'oppy 
Potato* 
Poultry 
Purvipkiii 
I Pyrites 



S93' 
398 

ib. t 
299 

ib. 

soo 

so* 

?I0 



Quincetree 



110 



R. 



■Rabbits 

Raihsh 

Rats , 

Red-top 

Rice 

RidgMng 



310 
311 

ib. 
312 

ib. 
315 



Rollei* and Rollinf 

Roots 

Rotation of Cropi, JiC. 

Runet, or Renet 

Rye % 



ib, 

444 
316 

Sir 



Salsafy 

Salts • . •♦ 
Saltiiijof Mc3^t W§^ 
Sand •"■ ^ 



>%19 I Sap 
'320 I ScratchHs 



'I 



468 


INDEX. 




Silkworms 


Page 340 


Steamboiler 


Fage SS5 


Slips 


345 


Stercorary 


356 


Smut 


ib. 


Stock 


357 


Snow 


346 


Stones 


359 


Soiling of Cattle 


347 


Stooking, or Shocking 


360 


Soot 


. 350 


Strain, or Sprain 


ib. 


Sowing 


•351 


Strawberry 


361 


Spiuiii • 


352 


Stubble • 


362 


Spaying 


35o 


Snft-urcane ..^^ 


ib. 


Spelt 


if). 


Sunflower ■ 


364 


Spiky-roller 


ib. 


Surfeit ^ 


365 


Sprouts 


354 


^^^^^ 


366 


Spur 


ib 


« Swine ^ - ^ '*^* 


367 


Stable and Stalls 


ib. 


ib. 


Staggers 


255 


« 






' T. 




Taurino 01oth 


373 


Timothy .grass 


38S 


Teams 


374 


I'obacco 


ib. 


TliD, or Tea-tree ' 


o77 


Transplanting 


384 


* Thorn * 


379 


I'rench-ploughing 


ib. 


Ihreshing 


ib. 


Tumors 


386 


TiUa-e . 


. 380 


Turnip 1 


ib. 


Timber 


382 






i^ * 


u. 




'Ulcers 


398 1 Urine 


399 




V. 




Vegetable Oyster^ 


599 Vine and Vineyard 


401 


Ventilating of GrAiii 


ib. Vinegar 


406 


Verjuice < * 
Vetch • * 


4C(:' Vive* 


ik. 


ib. * . 






w. 




Wagon 


407 Wheezing 


433 


Wails 


ibt^ Whey 


ib. 


Walnut 


'408 VVild-rice 


424 


W|trrninff of Rooms, &c 


409 Willow 


ib. 


Water 


' 411 vvindgalls 


425 


Waier-chesnut 


413 Wind-machinery 


ib. 


Wat0i--lilly, of China 


414 Wine 


427 


Weeds 


ib. 4Voad 


433 


Weevil 


419 Wolves 


437 


Well 


ib. Wood house 


ib. 


Wheat 


ib. Wounds 


433 


Yeast 


433 1 


Yejlcv--? • 


439 



'HE. 



MO^' 19 1909 



